Social Realism Essays - Art Movements, Art History, Modern Art

Social Realism Social Realism In Art Social realism, in art, describes both a specific stylistic approach and an overall attitude toward the subject. Social realism aims toward the not so lovely part of life. Its goal is not to amuse but to show the observer the evils of poverty , immorality and war. Social Realists believed that paintings should describe and express the people, their problems and their times. The roots of social realism lie in the 18th century. Some of the artists involved in the start of social realism are William Hogarth, Francisco de Goya and Honor Daumier. William Hogarth attacked drunkenness and foolish extravagance with his engravings of the 1730's to the '50's. Goya had a series of horrifying etchings titled The Disasters of War. Daumier had satiricial lithographs of the 1830's to '40's, that reflect deep social concern. Social realism painting declined, in France, after the 1860's which was the time it became important in Great Britian. Sir Luke Fildes's Applicants for Admission to a Casual Ward, Frank Holl's Newgate: Committed for Trial, and Hubert Herkomer's Pressing to the West depict grimy scenes of urban poverty. In the 1900's the British social realist tradition was carried on in the United States by the Ashcan school. After 1920 its emphasis was carried on by several major American painters. Ben Shahn was one of the artists in the 1920's and early '30's. He showed laborers and other victims of the Depression as well as scenes of the Sacco and Vanzetti trial and execution. Also Ivan Albright and Edward Hopper focused on the isolation of individual people in a society.

ACT Comparison - PrepScholar 2016 Students Encyclopedia

SAT / ACT Comparison - PrepScholar 2016 Students' Encyclopedia SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Colleges that require the SAT or ACT as part of their application procedures accept either test equally. Both the SAT and ACT are meant to measure academic ability and college readiness, but they differ in format, content, and overall structure. Note: this article is a series in the PrepScholar2016 Students' Encyclopedia, a free students' and parents' SAT / ACT guide that provides encyclopedic knowledge. Read all the articles here! Historically, students who lived on the East and West coasts tended to take the SAT and students in the Midwest took the ACT. Now the number of students who take these tests is approximately equal, with the number of ACT test-takers surpassing that of SAT test-takers for the first time in 20. Since colleges consider both tests to have equal validity, students benefit from choosing the one on which they can gain the stronger score. To determine which test better suits their abilities and test-taking styles, students can familiarize themselves with the differences between the SAT and ACT. Additionally, students can take official practice tests and use them to predict their probable score range. Differences in Format The SAT has three main sections, Critical Reading, Writing, and Mathematics. These sections are divided into 10 subsections, which are interspersed in various order between test administrations. Each subsection is 10, 20, or 25 minutes long. There aretwo 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section in SAT Critical Reading. There aretwo 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section in SAT Math. There isone 25 minute section for the essay and one 25 minute and one 10 minute section ofmultiple choice in SAT Writing. There is one 25 minute SAT experimental section. This section is unscored and could be Critical Reading, Mathematics, or Writing. The SAT consists of a total of 3 hours and 45 minutes, plus additional time for instructions and three 5 minute breaks. While the SAT is divided into tensubsections, the ACT tests its four subjects in four long sections. Once a section is complete, students will not return to it during the test. The ACT has four main sections: English, Mathematics, Reading, and Science. Students may also choose to take an optional 30 minute essay. While the order of SAT sections is unpredictable, ACT sections are always presented in this order, with the optional essay given at the end of the test. The sections are timed as follows: ACT English is 45 minutes. ACT Mathematics is 60 minutes. ACT Reading is 35 minutes. ACT Science is 35 minutes. The optional essay is 30 minutes. Unlike the SAT, there is no experimental section on the ACT. It comprises2 hours and 55 minutes, or 3 hours and 25 minutes with the essay. While the multiple choice questions on the SAT have five options and a 0.25 point deduction for wrong answers, ACT questions have four answer choices and no penalty for incorrect responses. For students deciding between the SAT and ACT, the above mentioned differences in format may be important factors in their choice. Students who prefer to focus on one subject at a time may benefit fromthe structure of the ACT, while those who feel energized switching between topics may prefer the experience of taking the SAT. Since anxiety is common around these admissionstests, students mayalso consider which exam structure helps relieve their stress. Some may prefer to divide the test into shorter sections that are finished in less time, as on the SAT. Others may benefit from the predictable nature of the ACT and dislike the variables, such as order of passages and the experimental section, that are part of the SAT. Both the SAT and ACTare similar in that they are strictly timed. Students may not return to a section afterthe allotted time has come to an end. The following information suggests a general amount of time per question. However, the actual time given to each question likely varies by each question's difficulty level, with easy questions taking less time and difficult questions requiring more. SAT Critical Reading: 54 seconds per question SAT Math: 67 seconds per question SAT Writing: 43 seconds per question ACT English: 36 seconds per question ACT Math: 60 seconds per question ACT Reading: 53 seconds per question ACT Science: 53 seconds per question Students typically report havingmore difficulty with timing on the ACT. Students who struggle to answer questions at a fast pace may perform better on the SAT. Since the ACT features four long sections, students have reported that they have a difficult timerecovering if they encounter time management problemswithin a particular section.Timing and pacing are additional considerations for students when determining the suitability of the SAT and ACT for their college planning. Differences in Content and Skills Both the SAT and ACT purport to measure the skills of problem solving and literacy needed for college level courses, but they do so in different ways. The SAT has three main sections, the Critical Reading, Mathematics, and Writing, while the ACT has four: Reading, Mathematics, English, and Science. The SAT Critical Reading is comparable to the ACT Reading, SAT Math is similar to ACT Math, and SAT Writing is analogous to ACT English. The ACT Science section is unique and has no counterpart onthe SAT. While the aforementioned sections test similar skills, they have key differences in content and question types. By familiarizing themselves with these differences, students can further determine the fitof each test withtheir testing style and academic goals. SAT Critical Reading and ACT Reading Comparison Both the SAT Critical Reading and ACT Reading sections test students' reading comprehension and understanding of vocabulary. Both sections feature passage-based questions that ask students to analyze prose, make inferences, interpret details, glean the meaning of vocabulary in context, and determine author tone and perspective. Preparation for these sections includes review of literary terms, like theme, symbol, and simile, and practice with skimming text for key information and details. The main difference between the SAT and ACT in their reading sections is the SAT's emphasis on high level vocabulary words. The SAT features 19 sentence completion questions, which often require students to understand the meaning of difficult vocabulary. The ACT, on the other hand, asks questions that focus on vocabulary in context. These types of questions, which also appear on the SAT's passage-based questions, ask about relativelycommon words that may have multiple meanings in various contexts. Students with a strong vocabulary or who enjoy studying high level words may prefer the SAT, while students who respond to straightforward wording may perform better on the ACT. The SAT Critical Reading is divided into two 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section, with the possibility of an additional 25 minute experimental section. Each section begins with 6 to 8 sentence completions, followed by passage-based questions. The ACT Reading is one 35 minute section that features four passages, or five with a paired passage exercise. The passages always come from prose fiction or literary narrative, the social sciences, the natural sciences, and humanities, in that order, and are followedby 10 questions. As with the overall structure of the ACT, its Reading section is consistent and predictable, a feature that mayreduce test-taking anxiety for somestudents. SAT Mathematics and ACT Mathematics Comparison Both the SAT Math and ACT Math test concepts in pre-algebra, algebra, geometry, probability, and statistics. The ACT additionally tests trigonometry, as well as, occasionally, matrices, complex numbers, and conic sections.Both SAT Math and ACT Mathask students to solve single and multi-step problems, often by combining concepts from multiple fields of study, and to interpret data from charts and graphs. In addition to testing more advanced math concepts, the ACTrequires students to memorize any needed formulas or facts. The SAT, on the other hand, presents students with formulas to measure area, volume, and circumference, as well as several facts related to geometry at the beginning of each math section. Both SAT and ACT Math sections allow the use of calculators. The SAT Math asks 44 multiple choice questions and 10 student-produced questions, while the ACT Math asks 60 multiple choice questions. The SAT is divided into two 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section. ACT Math is presented in one 60 minute section. Students who consider math to be their strength and have progressed into high school trigonometry may prefer the ACT, because it both tests more advanced concepts and requires stamina over one longer section. For students who feel uneasy about 60 multiple choice questions in a row, the SAT may be a better choice. SAT Writing and ACT English Comparison Both the SAT Writing and ACT English test students' understanding of the rules of English grammar and the organization of ideas within paragraphs. SAT Writing includes a mandatory 25 minute essay, which accounts for about 30% of students' Writing score. On the ACT, the essay is optional and does not get factored into the English section or composite score. SAT Writing asks 49 multiple choice in one 25 minute section and one 10 minute. ACT English asks 75 multiple choice questions in one 45 minute section. Its questions always refer to five passages, while the SAT asks about a combination of individual sentences and paragraphs. Both sections require an understanding of grammar, usage, diction, punctuation, parallel structure, and number agreement. Students must be able to identify errors within sentences and to choose appropriate revisions to correct them. Both sections also ask students to rearrange sentences within paragraphs to improve the flow and sequencing of ideas. The ACT, in particular, focuses on these skills of organization and grammar within the context of longer passages. It does not ask about individual sentences, like the SAT does, but instead focuses its questions around paragraphs and passages. The SAT, on the other hand, asks "identifying sentence errors" and "improving sentences" questions that are entirely focused on individual sentences. Only its "improving paragraphs" questions resemble the ACT's passage-based grammar questions. Given these differences, students can determine where their strengths lie, whether they be in identifying grammar rules based on a single sentence or in rearranging the structure of and ideas within longer passages. ACT Science Only the ACT features a Science section, though the SAT Critical Reading may have a passage derived from the field of natural sciences. The ACT Science section is 35 minutes long and features seven passages. Three of these passages feature data representation, three present research summaries, and one discusses conflicting viewpoints. The scientific concepts tested on the ACT Science are generally basic and may refer to biology, earth science, chemistry, or physics, along with some elementary math. ACT Science questions often ask students to interpret data, compare scientific opinions, and understand and evaluate experimental designs. While the questions are related to scientific opinions and experiments, they are said to test skills of reading comprehension more so than specific content knowledge of science. While students who excel in science may prefer the ACT over the SAT because of this section, they would benefit from understanding that manytest experts liken ACT Science to a reading test rather than to a traditional science test. SAT Essay and Optional ACT Essay Comparison Besides the presence of a Science section on the ACT, the essay is another major difference between the SAT and ACT. The 25 minute SAT essay is mandatory and always comes at the beginning of the exam. The 30 minute ACT essay is optional and, if selected, is administered as the last section. While the SAT essay is part of a student's Writing and composite score, the ACT essay score is not factored in. Prompts for the SAT essay are often abstract, philosophical, and/or related to a social issue. They generally begin with a quote or excerpt from a work of prose, followed by a question to elicit the test-taker's opinion. Test-takersare asked to present their point of view and support it with examples from their reading, studies, experience, or observations. Most SAT expertsadvise students to use a 5 paragraph structure, provide three distinct examples, and choose a strong position, rather than a neutral one, in order to gain a high score. SAT essays are graded by two readers and receive a score between 2 and 12. Sample SAT Essay Prompt The ACT essay also asks test-takers to develop and support their point of view, but the prompts are generally considered to be less abstract than SAT prompts and more grounded in students' experience. ACT prompts are frequentlyrelated to students' experience in school and may elicit test-takers' thoughts on education and learning. Sample ACT Essay Prompt Students who consider writing to be their strength may appreciate that the SAT essay is a part of their overall score. At the same time, theymust consider what date they plan to takethe SAT, as the redesigned SAT, set to begin in March of 2016, will feature a significantly different essay section. Deciding Between the SAT and ACT By researching the differences in content, structure, and question types between the SAT and ACT, students can gain insight into which test better aligns withtheir skills and test-taking style. Since colleges giveboth tests equal consideration, students benefit from choosing the one on which they can achieve a higher score. Students can retake either test several times to improve their scores. Colleges differ in their policies towards test scores and score reports. Some may require that students send all of their results fromeverytesting date, while others allow students to select which score reports are sent. A number of selective colleges require SAT Subject Tests along with the general SATor solely the ACT, a policy which may constituteanother important practical consideration for students when deciding between the two. By researching the differences between the two tests and the standardized testing policies of their colleges of interest, along with taking official SAT and ACT practice tests, students can determine which admissions test better suits their academic strengths and overall approach to the college application process. Redesign Alert The SAT has undergone major revisions and will debut a redesigned version in March of 2016.The new SAT will resemble the ACT in several ways. For one, the SAT essay will be made optional and relocated to the end of the test. Instead of the current 25 minutes, the essay sectionwill be 50 minutes and will ask students to analyze an argument made bya provided passage. Like the ACT, the new SAT will ask about grammar and vocabulary within the context of passages. Sentence completion questions will be eliminated, and vocabulary questions will focus on easy and medium level words within the context of paragraphs and passages. The new SAT will also resemble the ACT by having four answer choices on multiple choice questions instead of five and by using rights-only scoring that does not deduct points for incorrect answers. The ACT is also undergoing some changes, although not as dramatic as the SAT. Its essay section will be lengthened to 40 minutes and will ask students to evaluate various perspectives on an issue and develop their own argument. Like the SAT, the ACT Reading will feature paired passages, which students will be asked to compare and contrast. On the ACT Science, some students will encounter six passages, while others will find the usual seven. Most ACT experts that the test has been getting more challenging and fast-paced in recent years. Because of this apparent increase in the level of rigor, students may find the best representation of the official ACT in practice tests derived from recent years. Read more from theSAT Encyclopedia! Further Reading What Are the Differences Between the SAT and ACT? Complete Comparison Charts: ACT vs. SAT Is the ACT Easier Than the SAT?

An Analysis of Leadership Models

An Analysis of Leadership Models Each theory provides a model for effectively steering an organization. Three contemporary theories are widely applied in organizations today; Transactional Leadership, Charismatic leadership and finally transformational leadership. Each of these theories has its strong points weaknesses and challenges in real world application. These are not by any means the only theory – there are many others applied in other leadership situations. A lot of management research has gone into finding the perfect leadership solution. In this paper, we will review three leadership theories, their pros and cons and discuss examples of each theory. Page 1 Transactional Leadership Transactional Leadership model Leadership style plays a crucial role in the development of an organization. It is a leadership style that is often used by many companies assumes that people are motivated strictly by reward and punishment. This style generally does not appeal to the values, morals, or other intrinsic characteristics of most people. The transactional leader is highly focused on task, provides very clear direction, and oversees productivity in detail. When a subordinate fails, the next step is a penalty or punishment. The introduction of the task versus people orientation and the idea of leadership styles are widely accepted today. The model does have a downside, however: It does not consider other potential factors that may influence outcomes and therefore affect leadership effectiveness. While a two-dimensional task-versus-people perspective might be a helpful way to talk about leader behaviors, it by no means tells the whole story about leadership. Research continues to this day on these important questions, and this has led to additional new theories of leadership (Yukl, Gary A. Yukl). Assumptions ? ? ? ? ? Style The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. Transactional leadership believes that punishment and reward motivate people People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do. Page 2 The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the subordinate’s manager) gets authority over the subordinate. The „transaction’ is the money or any other award that the company pays to its subordinates for their compliance and effort (Kurnik, 2012). When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below expectation. Transactional leadership has more of a „telling style’. Transactional leadership is based on the fact that reward or punishment is dependent on the performance. Even though researchers have highlighted its limitations, transactional leadership is still prevalent in real workplace and more companies are adopting transactional leadership to increase the performance of its employees. This approach is. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a ‘selling’ style, Transactional Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a ‘telling’ style. Advantages of Transactional leadership This method works in most of the cases, where it’s applied, provided the employees are motivated by rewards. It is a proven compliance strategy, which works best if the top most leader in the hierarchy is capable of making most of the important decisions and is a strong personality. Page 3 Disadvantages of Transactional leadership A powerful and assertive leader will find the transactional model conducive to his way of running things. However, though he will create great followers, he will stunt their growth as leaders. When people get used to doing just what they are told and only as much they are told, they stop thinking ‘out of the box’. Original thinking is not really promoted in this system, because of which, an obedient workforce will be created with a lack of imagination. New leaders will be tough to find from the lower strata of power hierarchy. This leadership model will create a stressful work environment. Productivity will be maintained but innovations and breakthroughs will be tough to find. Examples of Transactional leadership In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow’s Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective. The main limitation of this leadership is that it assumes that people are largely motivated by simple rewards. Under transactional leadership, employees can’t do much to improve job satisfaction. Transaction leadership has been ineffective in providing skilled employees to their organization. This style of leadership is least interested in changing the work environment. Experts do not recommend this approach. Transactional leadership focuses more on management of punishments and rewards (Kurnik, 2012). Page 4 Charismatic Leadership The sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority in 1947 as â€Å"resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him. † Charismatic authority is one of three forms of authority laid out in Weber’s tripartite classification of authority, the other two being traditional authority and rational-legal authority. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists. Weber in his writings about charismatic authority, Weber applies the term charisma to â€Å"a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are not accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader1 Charismatic authority is as said to be power legitimized on the basis of a leader’s exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. ] As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader; the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority’s power dissolving. However, due to its individual nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the pe rceived legitimacy of the authority than Weber? s other forms of authority. Charismatic leaders can lead organizations into new areas, inspire followers, and sometimes obtain extraordinary performance and results from an organization. Conger Kanungo (1998) articulates the five characteristics of charismatic leaders. ? ? Vision and articulation; Sensitivity to the environment; 1 Weber, Maximillan. Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Chapter: â€Å"The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization† translated by A. R. Anderson and Talcott Parsons, 1947. Originally published in 1922 in German under the title Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft chapter III,  § 10 2 Kendall, Diana, Jane Lothian Murray, and Rick Linden. Sociology in our time (2nd ed. ), 2000. Scarborough, On: Nelson, 438-439. Page 5 ? ? ? Sensitivity to member needs; Personal risk taking; Performing unconventional behaviour. Advantages of charismatic leaders 1) They can sense the gap between what an organization is giving to its followers and what its followers require from the organization. Therefore they are able to create a vision that is in line with these requirements. ) Since members of the organization feel that they re part of this vision they are part of this vision, they support the goals of the organization (employee loyalty) Disadvantages of charismatic leaders 1). Followers may find this transformation uncomfortable and disrupti ve to the workplace or to them personally. Others may have difficulty relating to the leader’s vision of the future. Charismatic leaders also rely heavily on their personal charm, and perceptions, which could be significantly influenced by rumors or â€Å"negative press. † 2) They cause more harm than good. eg Adolf Hitler. 3) They lack of Successors and Visionaries. A charismatic leader often retains the majority of the control in the office because he believes in himself so much. He may have difficulty turning over control to others because he enjoys having the control or doesn’t feel anyone else is able to handle the duties like he can. This type of situation potentially leaves the company without any knowledgeable successors should the charismatic leader leave the company. Without giving others the authority and freedom to take some of the control, the company’s vision for the future is limited to the ideas of the leader. This type of environment may also squash some of the creative problem solving from other employees in the company, particularly if any ideas presented are pushed aside by the leader. 4) A charismatic leader sometimes gets so caught up in his control that he is unable to clearly see potential dangers with the company. The confidence he has in his abilities makes him feel that the company’s success will continue indefinitely. If he doesn’t have any other management Page 6 personnel on the same level with the same information, he may potentially miss a threat to the company’s financial welfare. 5) Overreliance on the leader. The charismatic leader wins over the employees of the company with his motivational leadership style. While employees may find inspiration in this type of leadership, they may also rely too heavily on the person in charge. The employees begin associating the success of the company solely with the leader. They may fail to see that all employees are a valuable part of making the company a success. This saddles the leader with a huge responsibility for both keeping the company running and motivating the staff. Examples of Charismatic Leadership Bill Clinton He was considered one of the most charismatic leaders of our times. Clinton connected and inspired. He had an ability to make his audience feel as though as individuals they were each the most important person in the room. His use of eye contact, infectious smile and self-awareness ensured that he made a powerful impact on those he met. No wander he was the president with the highest opinion poll ratings at the time of leaving the presidency, even though his tenure had been marred by the Monica Lewinsky scandal. Obama is a charismatic leader, during his inauguration as the 44th president U. S. A; over 2 million people were present. He accomplished fetes such as managing to raise funds in an unprecedented fashion, that is, small sums of money from numerous persons . He has been applauded as an outstanding orator, captive speaker and brilliant man. He inspires his followers, moves them to tears and gives the hope. He feverishly wooed the citizens to vote for him. Adolf Hitler Hitler gained this ‘charismatic status’ partially because of his political skill and magnetism. He had experienced considerable success in cutting the unemployment figures and this was essential. However, it was somewhat overshadowed by his unshakeable conviction in his own Page 7 historical role. Hitler often spoke of a ‘mission’ and claimed ‘I go with the certainty of a sleepwalker along the path laid out for me by Providence’. It was this ‘mission’ achievable only for Hitler, which allowed him to transcend bureaucratic processes and become ‘charismatic’. 3 3 Noakes, Jeremy and Pridham, Geoffrey (ed. ) Nazism 1919-1945 Volume II: State, Economy and Society 1933-1939 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000) Page 8 Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership occurs when a leader takes a visionary position and inspires people to follow. James MacGregor Burns (1978) 1 first introduced the concept of transforming leadership in his descriptive research on political leaders. According to MacGregor, transforming leadership is a process in which â€Å"leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation†. MacGregor differentiated between leadership and management, and related them to characteristics and behaviors. According to MacGregor, the transforming approach creates significant change in people and organizations by changing the employee expectations and aspirations. This is because it redesigns the perceptions and values. Unlike in transactional approach, it is not based on a â€Å"give and take† relationship but on the leader? s personality and abilities, articulation of an energizing vision and challenging goals. He theorized that transforming and transactional leaders were mutually exclusive styles. Bernard M. Bass (1985), expanded upon MacGregor? s work (1985) by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership. Bass used â€Å"transformational† instead of â€Å"transforming† original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass? Transformational Leadership Theory. 2 According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. According to Bass, transformational leaders earn trust, respect and admiration from their followers. Transformational leadership can be found at all leadership levels in an organization. These leaders are seen to have a charismatic appeal in that they are visionary, enthusiastic, passionate, daring, inspiring, energetic, risk takers and thoughtful thinkers. However, charisma alone may not be sufficient to transform an organization. To gear changes, the leaders must exhibit the factors of transformational leadership. The four different components of transformational leadership as suggested by Bernard M. Bass: ? Intellectual Stimulation – Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn. Page 9 ? Individualized Consideration – Transformational leadership also involves offering support and encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer direct recognition of each follower? s unique contributions. ? Inspirational Motivation – Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they are able to articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals. ? Idealized Influence – The transformational leaders serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate the leader and internalize his Assumptions People follow a person who inspires them A person with vision and passion can achieve great things Enthusiasm and energy get things done. Leadership style The leadership style adopted is â€Å"selling type†. This involves: Developing the vision – transformational leadership beginnings with development of a vision. This may be done by senior managers, the leader or the team. The leaders then buy and sink into the vision. Selling the vision – the leader then constantly sells the vision to the followers. The leaders seek adoption of the vision through creating trust and any means available to convince the followers. Seeking the way forward – this goes along with the selling activity. Some leaders know the way and simply want others to follow, while others happily lead the exploration of possible routes since they do not have a ready strategy. With a clear vision, though the direction may not be very clear, it is always known. Since this is an ongoing process, a transformational leader will accept the failures and content with whatever progress that is made. Page 10 Leading the charge – the final stage and most critical is that the leader takes the lead and remains central during the action. This is where the leader is a role model –setting the examples by not idling behind their troops. Their unrelenting commitment keeps the team focused. These leaders are people oriented and thus strike a balance between the task and the followers. Transformational leadership borrows a lot from relationship theories also known as transformational theories. Emphasis is laid more on the link formed between the leaders and the followers. The leader inspires and motivates the group to see the importance and significance of the task, but also wants each individual to fulfill their potential. Advantages of Transformational leadership ? This kind of leadership style often brings out high ethical and moral standards. Since the team is all geared towards achieving the organizational task as well as their individual goals. ? Produces a highly energized work force, which is essential to achieve organizational goals. It enables maximization of synergy in the team. Disadvantages of Transformational leadership ? Since the style emphasizes on impression management, it leads to a moral self glorification/ promotion by the leaders. ? Due to the influence emphasis, the followers may be manipulated by the leaders to lose more than they actually gain. ? ? The energy applied by leaders can wear out the followers making them give up. The passion and confidence can easily be mistaken as reality. This may lead to mistakes with consequences being adopted. Though transformational leaders are charismatic, they are not like pure charismatic leaders who succeed through their individualism since they believe in others. Page 11 The leadership style is almost impossible to teach or train since it? s a combination of leadership theories and personal attributes Examples of Transformational Leaders Nelson Mandela South Africa was a racially polarized country for many decades. Nelson Mandela was able to humanize the apartheid leading to the emergence of a nation now recognized globally. His was able to use his charisma to synchronize the haves and have-nots towards a common cause – transforming the nation from the polarity caused by the racial and wealth factors. Mahtama Gandhi Prior to the British occupation, India was amongst the leading goods exporting nation. The British rule was highly mechanized with modern industrial power; they successfully eliminated the local Indian artisans? infrastructure turning India into a big importer and consumer nation. Different leaders were contemplating different ways to drive British in India; he sought to understand the reason for colonialism. According to Mahatma, the way to resist the British was through non violent ways to become self reliant and stop consuming English products. He therefore opted for persistent mass movements that would eventually prove expensive to the British Rule. Gandhi inspires various leaders including South African Nelson Mandela and various movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Sam Walton Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart, often visited Wal-Mart stores across the country to meet with associates to show his appreciation for what they did for the company. Sam Walton gave â€Å"rules for success† in his autobiography, one of which was to appreciate associates with praise (Walton, 1996). Page 12 Jack Welch He was Chairman and CEO of General Electric between 1981 and 2001. During his tenure at GE, the company’s value rose 4,000% and was the most valuable company in the world for a while. Having taken GE with a market capitalization of about $12 billion, Jack Welch turned it into one of the largest and most admired companies in the world, with a market value of about $500 billion, when he stepped down as its CEO 20 years later, in 2000. Although Jack Welch was a celebrated leader of a global manufacturer often noted for its technological prowess, he utilized a very human process to drive change through GE’s vast organization. Having respect for the individual as a pivotal force in organizational change, Welch created a model of exceptional performance every corporate leader can learn from. Page 13 References Lussier/Achua 3rd edition. Effective Leadership. Course text Kurnik, E. (2012). Transactional Leadership. Retrieved March 3, 2012, from HubPages Inc: http://edikurnik. hubpages. com/hub/Transactional-Leadership Yukl, G. A. (Gary A. Yukl). Leadership in Organizations (6th Edition). New Jersy: Prentice Hall. Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. New York. Harper Row Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Page 14

Creative Process Assignment Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Creative Process Assignment - Article Example Ideas sometime needs inspiration forexample a personmay have a dream which gives them an idea. This idea has to be worked on immediately thus this person has to wake up in the middle of the night to right down these ideas lest they forget. Normal situations like taking a shower, watching a film or walking in the streets have a tendency of producing big ideas. In my own perspective everybody is creative if they decide to put their mind to it (Jaffe, 2003). Butif we look at the history of creativity which is the cornerstone of advertisements big ideas, we find out that the minds ability to be creative has been overshadowed(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). Creativity is a tough thing for most people yet it is very important in the contemporary society(Jaffe, 2003). Creativity is a process that seeps into the mind of the people. Everybody has their own creative process since each mind is unique thus ideas are born differently(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). I have my own creative process which I use to deliver my big ideas and I have to know my process just like an artist knows his tools. Novelty is my number one tool that I use before even starting the creative process(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). I do not necessarily have to have the idea at hand but if I have novelty I can always come up with new ideas which bring dynamism to the advertising world. My creative process involves four significant stages with the first stage being preparation(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). The preparation stage is where in my opinion makes the creative process tough. An example is when you see a person walking down the street you don’t look twice or remember him or her a few seconds after they have, passed. Why? Because it is ordinary, it is normal nothing stands out worth remembering(Jaffe, 2003). Now this same concept must be played in creativity in advertising. The preparation part means that I have to find out something new, something

((((6))))) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

((((6))))) - Essay Example ademic methods and academic content in curricula but still emphasize to them how important it is to meet the specific needs of the children without necessarily violating the stipulated curriculum. I will inform them their role in helping the children attain the specific components through play and interactive learning and how this helps children attain components such as phonological awareness and comprehend meaning. Learning in my developmentally appropriate preschool classroom will be an interactive affair where preschoolers will freely engage in conversations to acquire oral skills and also participate in plays that will help them interact with the environment to develop cognitive skills. The preschool parents I cross-examined seemed to favor a classroom where their children will be learning literacy skills such as mathematics and sciences. However, they also held the idea that children should be given sometime to play and socialize. They would like the teacher to give personalized attention to children with learning difficulties and give them the opportunity to portray their artistic skills in activities such as modeling and drawing. The parents favor a type of classroom that is physical classroom where both indoors and outdoor activities are undertaken with utter importance. The classroom should have an apmle space for the teacher to interact and help the child. Apparently, this diligently ties with the DAP ideas presented in chapter 15 where more attention should be given to not only academic development, but also exploration of the environment, opportunity/space to manipulate, time to play and time to sleep. Parents seem to realize that play and socialization/interaction are important for the healthy growth and development of

Organisation Learning Essay Example for Free

Organisation Learning Essay Where Argyris and Schon were the first to propose models that facilitate organizational learning, the following literatures have followed in the tradition of their work: Argyris and Schon (1978) distinguish between single-loop and double-loop learning, related to Gregory Batesons concepts of first and second order learning. In single-loop learning, individuals, groups, or organizations modify their actions according to the difference between expected and obtained outcomes. In double-loop learning, the entities (individuals, groups or organization) question the values, assumptions and policies that led to the actions in the first place; if they are able to view and modify those, then second-order or double-loop learning has taken place. Double loop learning is the learning about single-loop learning. ?March and Olsen (1975) attempt to link up individual and organizational learning. In their model, individual beliefs lead to individual action, which in turn may lead to an organizational action and a response from the environment which may induce improved individual beliefs and the cycle then repeats over and over. Learning occurs as better beliefs produce better actions. ?Kim (1993), as well, in an article titled The link between individual and organizational learning, integrates Argyris, March and Olsen and another model by Kofman into a single comprehensive model; further, he analyzes all the possible breakdowns in the information flows in the model, leading to failures in organizational learning; for instance, what happens if an individual action is rejected by the organization for political or other reasons and therefore no organizational action takes place? ?Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) developed a four stage spiral model of organizational learning. They started by differentiating Polanyis concept of tacit knowledge from explicit knowledge and describe a process of alternating between the two. Tacit knowledge is personal, context specific, subjective knowledge, whereas explicit knowledge is codified, systematic, formal, and easy to communicate. The tacit knowledge of key personnel within the organization can be made explicit, codified in manuals, and incorporated into new products and processes. This process they called externalization. The reverse process (from explicit to implicit) they call internalization because it involves employees internalizing an organizations formal rules, procedures, and other forms of explicit knowledge. They also use the term socialization to denote the sharing of tacit knowledge, and the term combination to denote the dissemination of codified knowledge. According to this model, knowledge creation and organizational learning take a path of socialization, externalization, combination, internalization, socialization, externalization, combination . . . etc. in an infinite spiral. ?Nick Bontis et al. (2002) empirically tested a model of organizational learning that encompassed both stocks and flows of knowledge across three levels of analysis: individual, team and organization. Results showed a negative and statistically significant relationship between the misalignment of stocks and flows and organizational performance. ?Flood (1999) discusses the concept of organizational learning from Peter Senge and the origins of the theory from Argyris and Schon. The author aims to re-think Senges The Fifth Discipline through systems theory. The author develops the concepts by integrating them with key theorists such as Bertalanffy, Churchman, Beer, Checkland and Ackoff. Conceptualizing organizational learning in terms of structure, process, meaning, ideology and knowledge, the author provides insights into Senge within the context of the philosophy of science and the way in which systems theorists were influenced by twentieth-century advances from the classical assumptions of science. ?Imants (2003) provides theory development for organizational learning in schools within the context of teachers professional communities as learning communities, which is compared and contrasted to teaching communities of practice. Detailed with an analysis of the paradoxes for organizational learning in schools, two mechanisms for professional development and organizational learning, (1) steering information about teaching and learning and (2) encouraging interaction among teachers and workers, are defined as critical for effective organizational learning. ?Common (2004) discusses the concept of organisational learning in a political environment to improve public policy-making. The author details the initial uncontroversial reception of organisational learning in the public sector and the development of the concept with the learning organization. Definitional problems in applying the concept to public policy are addressed, noting research in UK local government that concludes on the obstacles for organizational learning in the public sector: (1) overemphasis of the individual, (2) resistance to change and politics, (3) social learning is self-limiting, i.e. individualism, and (4) political blame culture. The concepts of policy learning and policy transfer are then defined with detail on the conditions for realizing organizational learning in the public sector. Organizational knowledge What is the nature of knowledge created, traded and used in organizations? Some of this knowledge can be termed technical ? knowing the meaning of technical words and phrases, being able to read and make sense of economic data and being able to act on the basis of law-like generalizations. Scientific knowledge is ?propositional; it takes the form of causal generalizations ? whenever A, then B. For example, whenever water reaches the temperature of 100 degrees, it boils; whenever it boils, it turns into steam; steam generates pressure when in an enclosed space; pressure drives engines. And so forth. A large part of the knowledge used by managers, however, does not assume this form. The complexities of a managers task are such that applying A may result in B, C, or Z. A recipe or an idea that solved very well a particular problem, may, in slightly different circumstances backfire and lead to ever more problems. More important than knowing a whole lot of theories, recipes and solutions for a manager is to know which theory, recipe or solution to apply in a specific situation. Sometimes a manager may combine two different recipes or adapt an existing recipe with some important modification to meet a situation at hand. Managers often use knowledge in the way that a handyman will use his or her skills, the materials and tools that are at hand to meet the demands of a particular situation. Unlike an engineer who will plan carefully and scientifically his or her every action to deliver the desired outcome, such as a steam engine, a handyman is flexible and opportunistic, often using materials in unorthodox or unusual ways, and relies a lot on trial and error. This is what the French call ? bricolage, the resourceful and creative deployment skills and materials to meet each challenge in an original way. Rule of thumb, far from being the enemy of management, is what managers throughout the world have relied upon to inform their action. In contrast to the scientific knowledge that guides the engineer, the physician or the chemist, managers are often informed by a different type of know-how. This is sometimes referred to a ? narrative knowledge or ? experiential knowledge, the kind of knowledge that comes from experience and resides in stories and narratives of how real people in the real world dealt with real life problems, successfully or unsuccessfully. Narrative knowledge is what we use in everyday life to deal with awkward situations, as parents, as consumers, as patients and so forth. We seek the stories of people in the same situation as ourselves and try to learn from them. As the Chinese proverb says A wise man learns from experience; a wiser man learns from the experience of others. Narrative knowledge usually takes the form of organization stories (see organization story and organizational storytelling). These stories enable participants to make sense of the difficulties and challenges they face; by listening to stories, members of organizations learn from each others experiences, adapt the recipes used by others to address their own difficulties and problems. Narrative knowledge is not only the preserve of managers. Most professionals (including doctors, accountants, lawyers, business consultants and academics) rely on narrative knowledge, in addition to their specialist technical knowledge, when dealing with concrete situations as part of their work. More generally, narrative knowledge represents an endlessly mutating reservoir of ideas, recipes and stories that are traded mostly by word or mouth on the internet. They are often apocryphal and may be inaccurate or untrue yet, they have the power to influence peoples sense making and actions. Individual versus organizational learning Learning by individuals in an organizational context is a well understood process. This is the traditional domain of human resources, including activities such as: training, increasing skills, work experience, and formal education. Given that the success of any organization is founded on the knowledge of the people who work for it, these activities will and, indeed, must continue. However, individual learning is only a prerequisite to organizational learning. Others take it farther with continuous learning. The world is orders of magnitude more dynamic than that of our parents, or even when we were young. Waves of change are crashing on us virtually one on top of another. Change has become the norm rather than the exception. Continuous learning throughout ones career has become essential to remain relevant in the workplace. Again, necessary but not sufficient to describe organizational learning. What does it mean to say that an organization learns? Simply summing individual learning is inadequate to model organizational learning. The following definition outlines the essential difference between the two: A learning organization actively creates, captures, transfers, and mobilizes knowledge to enable it to adapt to a changing environment. Thus, the key aspect of organizational learning is the interaction that takes place among individuals. A learning organization does not rely on passive or ad hoc process in the hope that organizational learning will take place through serendipity or as a by-product of normal work. A learning organization actively promotes, facilitates, and rewards collective learning. Creating (or acquiring) knowledge can be an individual or group activity. However, this is normally a small-scale, isolated activity steeped in the jargon and methods of knowledge workers. As first stated by Lucilius in the 1st century BC, Knowledge is not knowledge until someone else knows that one knows. Capturing individual learning is the first step to making it useful to an organization. There are many methods for capturing knowledge and experience, such as publications, activity reports, lessons learned, interviews, and presentations. Capturing includes organizing knowledge in ways that people can find it; multiple structures facilitate searches regardless of the users perspective (e. g. , who, what, when, where, why,and how). Capturing also includes storage in repositories, databases, or libraries to insure that the knowledge will be available when and as needed. Transferring knowledge requires that it be accessible to everyone when and where they need it. In a digital world, this involves browser-activated search engines to find what one is looking for. A way to retrieve content is also needed, which requires a communication and network infrastructure. Tacit knowledge may be shared through communities of practice or consulting experts. It is also important that knowledge is presented in a way that users can understand it. It must suit the needs of the user to be accepted and internalized. Mobilizing knowledge involves integrating and using relevant knowledge from many, often diverse, sources to solve a problem or address an issue. Integration requires interoperability standards among various repositories. Using knowledge may be through simple reuse of existing solutions that have worked previously. It may also come through adapting old solutions to new problems. Conversely, a learning organization learns from mistakes or recognizes when old solutions no longer apply. Use may also be through synthesis; that is creating a broader meaning or a deeper level of understanding. Clearly, the more rapidly knowledge can be mobilized and used, the more competitive an organization. An organization must learn so that it can adapt to a changing environment. Historically, the life-cycle of organizations typically spanned stable environments between major socioeconomic changes. Blacksmiths who didnt become mechanics simply fell by the wayside. More recently, many fortune 500 companies of two decades ago no longer exist. Given the ever-accelerating rate of global-scale change, the more critical learning and adaptation become to organization relevance, success, and ultimate survival. Organizational learning is a social process, involving interactions among many individuals leading to well-informed decision making. Thus, a culture that learns and adapts as part of everyday working practices is essential. Reuse must equal or exceed reinvent as a desirable behavior. Adapting an idea must be rewarded along with its initial creation. Sharing to empower the organization must supersede controlling to empower an individual. Clearly, shifting from individual to organizational learning involves a non-linear transformation. Once someone learns something, it is available for their immediate use. In contrast, organizations need to create, capture, transfer, and mobilize knowledge before it can be used. Although technology supports the latter, these are primarily social processes within a cultural environment, and cultural change, however necessary, is a particularly challenging undertaking. Learning organization The work in Organizational Learning can be distinguished from the work on a related concept, the learning organization. This later body of work, in general, uses the theoretical findings of organizational learning (and other research in organizational development, system theory, and cognitive science) in order to prescribe specific recommendations about how to create organizations that continuously and effectively learn. This practical approach was championed by Peter Senge in his book The Fifth Discipline. Diffusion of innovations Diffusion of innovations theory explores how and why people adopt new ideas, practices and products. It may be seen as a subset of the anthropological concept of diffusion and can help to explain how ideas are spread by individuals, social networks and organizations.

Tradition in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily and Shirley Jacksons

Tradition in William Faulkner's A Rose for Emily and Shirley Jackson's The Lottery People throughout the world do things for many different reasons. Religion, peer pressure, or tradition are some of the reasons the people do things. In the U.S. we have many traditions such as Christmas. Some people have strange or out of the ordinary traditions. The two short stories ?The Lottery? and ?A Rose for Emily? both portray tradition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In ?The Lottery?, tradition is showed in three main ways. First, Old Man Warner says, ?there has always been a lottery (Jackson 11).? The town people accept The Lottery because there has always been a lottery. The older people in the town such as Old Man Warner keep the tradition alive with their ideals. Second, The Lottery is held every year. Tradition is upheld in this way because it introduces the younger generation to the tradition. This shows that the lottery is a tradition because traditions happen over and over again. Lastly, tradition is shown with the parifanilia used in the story of ?The Lottery?. The black box used to draw names is a duplicate of the original. The black box is a symbol of what was in the years past.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In ?A Rose for Emily?, tradition is also shown in three main ways. First, Emily does not get courted by anyone. This would not seem to be a normal tradition but in the story her father did not want Emily to become involved with anyone. Emily?s father was not following tradition when doing this because normal t...

Fair Value Accounting Essay

This paper attempts to answer the questions: Is Fair Value Fair? In so answering the question there is a need to determine whether the use of fair value accurately portray the value underlying financial and economic transactions; to determine whether there is basis to have one universal standard of valuing the assets and obligations of all firms; to find out whether accounting standards would allow for both historical and fair value and still produce meaningful information for decision making; and establish one is more important between relevancy and reliability and whether one’s the importance each depend upon the financial user. 2. Analysis and Discussion 2. 1 What is meant by being fair? To be fair means giving what is due to a person. If applied to an asset purchased or liability assumed in business, fair value would simply mean that said asset or liability is neither overpriced nor underpriced as a matter of perception. Under the law of economics, fair value would refer to that market price which is approximated by the equilibrium price of a thing or good, which is the value of the something from a seller that is not forced to sell or from a buyer that is not forced to buy. In a business transaction there are always are investors, creditors, and other persons who must get their due in transactions that they will enter into. An investor will know what is fair if the person or entity will earn just enough return above cost of capital and in exchange for the risk that such person or entity is taking. The same must be true with a creditor that the person must also get paid on time on his credit plus a sufficient return for the risk in form of interest and penalties. In terms of viewing the corporation as a business entity, what is fair to it is what will allow it to have a sufficient return for the risk that it is taking above its cost of doing business or cost of capital. To arrive at what is fair the investors and creditors who are called users of financial information, these users must know the true or accurate information about of the company so that they will know whether they are going to earn or lose and make the necessary decision whether they will sell, buy or hold to their investments. In other words, to have the chance of being treated fairly from a transaction, one must have the opportunity to have the true or accurate value of asset or liability being dealt with in a business transaction. The opportunity is thus normally supplied by financial reports prepared by companies and which are made public. It is in these financial reports where values whether fair or historical are reported in accordance with prescribed accounting standards that may come from the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the case of US companies and IFRS in case of companies operating in the European Union and in other countries which have adopted the IAS or IFRS. Fair value accounting was made pursuant to FAS 157 as issued by US FASB for companies to reflect the accounting information on how much are the real values of assets, liabilities and equity in the balance sheet as contrasted with presenting the information using the historical cost accounting. The purpose of FAS 157 then was built on a framework whereby financial users are given the chance about the true state or fair value of assets, liabilities and equity for decision making under the impression that things will be fair to users of financial information about a company. Incidentally, FAS 157 defines fair value almost very closely to what was discussed and analyzed so far. It is the price that would be received â€Å"to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants in a measurement date† (Sortur, 2007). 2. 2 Does the use of fair value accurately portray the value underlying financial and economic transactions? To the extent that fair value concept is discussed so far, there is the presumed proposition that the use of fair value will accurately portray the value underlying the financial economic transaction. As to whether this is true, this subsection will have to evaluate the subsequent result on what happened upon the application of 157. In the case of banks, there are those who have to write down the value of assets because of their perception that values have declined due to existing market conditions (Chasan, 2008: Rees-Mogg, 2007). The economic effects however were not favorable to affected interested parties since this action of the banks has produced a backlash. Investors of these banks have lost values of their investments. As a result, the banks have become more risky and depositors lost their trust too in the banking system. If indeed the banks were just reflecting the true values of the assets, how come the reaction of these banks as matter of complying with the requirements of the FAS I57 was not good for many of the affected parties? Would it proper then to deduce that the application of FAS 157 is not fair or that FAS 157 fair value is not fair? If the answers to both of these questions are in the affirmative, then this would have the connotation that what is unfavorable to others is not fair. But how if the values being reflected in the write down are indeed the true values, would the fact that users of financially information get adversely affected make the FAS 157 not fair any more? It would seem that it would be not correct to say fair value accounting or the use of fair value will not be fair if users get affected or have the perception of not getting what they feel or perceive to deserve even if the information is indeed accurate. Otherwise, fair value accounting would be equated with sure profits which could never be within the contemplation of the use of information in decision making. Being fair therefore must first and foremost be characterized to represent the true and accurate information and consequence would be justified by such quality of information. To answer squarely whether the use of fair value accurately portray the value underlying financial and economic transactions, this paper would have to answer in the affirmative. Based on foregoing analysis the FAS 157 aims to reflect the values what would approximate the market price since it is â€Å"the price to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants in a measurement date† (Sortur, 2007). FAS 157 fair value is therefore the result of the business transaction using the exit price (Sortur, 2007) and is determined by the buyers and sellers in the market. It is therefore not the job of FAS 157 to create what is unfair but would have only to reflect the true values of assets or liabilities that would have to be reported. Therefore, fair value accounting or the use of fair value must be upheld to be fair if it would reflect or would cause the reflection of what are true values. Indeed, it must be the capital markets or the buyers and sellers who will determine the market value or fair value and not the accounting standard. The only role of the accounting standard is to cause its reflection in financial reports of companies because of the requirement to make public their financial statement to investors which would reflect the fair values of assets and liabilities. There is argument that the intention of 157 Accounting rule FAS 157 is good but one cannot prevent people from taking advantage of the new rule to what could further their interest. It is further argued that in whatever one would like to look at it, the generic thing about business is still the desire for profit by which people are motivated with their personal interest to get more wealth (Brigham and Houston, 2002). In response, the use of fair value does consent to allowing people to be taken advantage but cannot prevent those who would want to and those who do not know how to process information for decision making. If the banks which wrote down asset values are indeed taking advantage of the use of fair value accounting, it is still the transactions between the previous buyer or seller that have caused the reaction which started it and the role of accounting standard is just to reflect them (Meigs and Meigs, 1995). If the requirement to report what is happening is unfair, what will then be fair? Chasan (2008) narrated about some investors expressing their doubts on the effectiveness or fairness of fair value accounting method used especially in the context of evaporating markets caused by the financial crisis. The author however admitted that the use of FAS 157 as an accounting standard was made to improve transparency to investors. Citing big write-downs being made big companies like Citigroup and Merrill Lynch & Co Inc. which has made multibillion-dollar reductions on subprime-related asset-backed securities and other assets described as hard-to-price assets, the issue of whether fair value is still fair has become a controversial question (Chasan, 2008). The argument being asserted is about the volatility of being caused the use of fair value. Rephrased simply, can fair value justify the volatility? Volatility is a term used in business which connotes changes in market prices and which causes risks to investors (Droms, 1990; Helfert, 1994). It is feared that with the desire to create transparency, increased risk from the use of fair value is coming out as a result. To resolve the issue, the previous answer to the question on whether the use of fair value could justify big losses if what is being reflected or reported about company values are still true, would in effect cover the issue of volatility being blamed on the use of fair value. Hence, this paper believes, that fair value which stands for what is true must be upheld as argued earlier. There are concerns that because of volatility caused by the use of fair value accounting, the money makers would just be benefiting hedge funds since they are those to profit from volatility (Chasan 2008). In answer, it could argued that such is the nature of fair value accounting, to allow the market forces to move freely without people being compelled to enter into buying and selling transactions. If there are losers, there are also losers and they are part of the process. It is also argued that those who are complaining about the effects of credits being blamed on the use of fair value accounting are investors or groups of them, who may have been instrumental in pushing for the shift to fair value accounting. One of these groups is called the CFA Centre for Financial Market Integrity, with analysts and portfolio managers composing the group (Chasan 2008). The group and other groups 2007 had their aggressive lobbying to use fair value more in financials. These investor groups could not be only be winners in a market transaction, they could also be losers sometimes; otherwise the market is not operating efficiently. 2. 3 Should there be one universal standard of valuing the assets and obligations of all firms? The issue of whether there should be universal standard for valuing the assets and obligation may be very ideal since when one now talks of universal fair value as a universal standard for example, one will have to consider macroeconomic conditions of the different companies in the world. Since not all nations are similarly situated, at least economically, there is the strong probability that universal value could not be implemented. The question is being propounded to help in setting what is the fair value in accounting like the universality of human rights. However its impracticality will prevent the attainment of the objective. Accounting values are not human rights. Another thing is the difficulty of measuring the risks in business in different countries which are factors in determining the cost of capital of doing business. The difference in risks depends upon many factors including macroeconomic conditions which are affected by political developments. In answer therefore to the question, it will have to plainly say that the vision of universal standard is laudatory and this could be a part of an approximate desire to the internationalization of accounting in many part of the world. There is the plan to harmonize all accounting standards in the world. The FAS 157 definition was actually made part of the plan of IASB which makes IFRS, to adopt the former for the use of those using the IAS or IFRS (Sortur, 2007). In other words, efforts are made to approximate universality of standard in valuing the assets and obligations of all firms but its realization could only possibly become when the time will come for a universal government. 2. 4 Can accounting standards allow for both historical and fair value and still produce meaningful information for decision making? Accounting standards are in effect guides to users to help users make informed decisions in business. Having both historical and fair value must strike the balance of getting to the extreme of having one and disregarding the other. In other words, one needs to know what is historical for comparison to what is fair value or market value to make an informed judgment. Accounting standards must then work for the attainment for the creation of balance between the two values. As to whether the accounting standards can allow for both historical and fair value and still produce meaningful information for decision making, is answered again in the affirmative. This can be tackled better by breaking the given statement into two propositions first and then combine them latter. The first proposition would be declared settled in the fact the accounting standards can allow both historical and fair value together. The second proposition is that the use of both will still produce meaningful information. This first proposition is accomplished since the practice have been done for a long time already since in the case of valuing of inventories, accounting standards allow the valuing them of lower of cost or market under the IAS 2. (Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu, 2008). The fact that inventories can be valued at cost means the historical cost is maintained but requirement of presenting the fair value of inventory if it has gone down in the market is also a part of the standard which in effect allows the working of fair value concept. There are other IAS concepts which allowed fair value accounting and historical value accounting. Thus this section is not much of a problem. The second proposition appears to also to have been fulfilled by the use of IAS as illustrated. More meaningful information is in fact reflected by allowing a combination of fair value and historical cost in the valuation of assets and liabilities of companies. By combining the validation done is confirming the application of two proposition, it could be sufficient to strongly answer the question in the affirmative. 5. Relevancy and Reliability: Is one more important than the other, depending upon the financial user? Both relevancy and reliability are requirements for qualitative characteristics of accounting information. Forcing one to be is more important than the other would be asking the wrong question if the objective is only to determine whether preparing financial information using their fair values is fair. In fact to say that an information must be relevant carries the presupposition that the information must also be reliable. This is on premise that reliability connotes objectivity of information which is very much akin to being truth or fair. Information is relevant or has is relevancy character if it influences one’s decision about a particular issue. On the other hand, reliability deals with the objectivity or accuracy of the information. How could a decision maker consider information as relevant when there is no reliability of the information? On the other hand having reliable information would be of no value if the same is not needed in the decision to be made. The two characteristics must therefore go together. 3. Conclusion The issue of whether fair value accounting or the use of fair in accounting for company assets and liabilities is fair must be answered in the affirmative. What is fair is not what has caused much damaged to a person or entity if such damage was a result of failure to follow the basic rules of making investment. The effect of fair value should not be used to allow one to just justify greed while disregarding the rights of others. A loser under a fair value accounting is comparable to a person who is taking too much risk thus the return could also be high but could be low because of the working of the market. As long as buyers and sellers are not being compelled to complete their transaction, fair value is still fair. Fair value accounting will lead to the truth but its value will also depend on the users of information after they have done their roles in the market. The user will still need to make a comparison with what is historical and what is the current fair value as caused by economic conditions. Present accounting standards have caused the reporting of both kind of information but users must also be intelligent in doing their part. Fair value as a concept in accounting standard was just made to correct the apparent failure of purely historical cost accounting. If fair value accounting is fair, it does not imply that the standard must go back to historical accounting but historical information must still be reported and allow the user to make a difference in how to process the information. Since fair value and historical cost could co-exist together, the same must be the better option as it will provide a balance between historical and fair value accounting. References: Brigham and Houston, Introduction to Financial Management, Thomson-South Western, USA, 2002 Chasan, Emily (2008), Is fair value accounting really fair? {www document} URL, http://www. reuters. com/article/reutersEdge/idUSN1546484120080226, Accessed October 20, 2008 Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu (2008), Summary of IFRS for IAS 2, {www document} URL http://www. iasplus. com/standard/ias02. htm , Accessed October 21, 2008. Droms (1990) Finance and Accounting for Non Financial Managers, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, England Helfert, Erich (1994), Techniques for Financial Analysis, IRWIN, Sydney, Australia Meigs and Meigs, 1995, Financial Accounting, McGraw-Hill, Inc, London, UK Rees-Mogg (2007), Why FAS 157 strikes dread into bankers, {www document} URL http://www. timesonline. co. uk/tol/comment/columnists/william_rees_mogg/article2852547. ece, Accessed October 21, 2008. Sortur (2007) Fair Value Measurement, The Chartered Accountant {www document} URL, http://icai. org/resource_file/96471564-1574. pdf, Accessed October 21, 2008. ]

Lacsap’s Fractions

Lacsap’s Fractions IB Math 20 Portfolio By: Lorenzo Ravani Lacsap’s Fractions Lacsap is backward for Pascal. If we use Pascal’s triangle we can identify patterns in Lacsap’s fractions. The goal of this portfolio is to ? nd an equation that describes the pattern presented in Lacsap’s fraction. This equation must determine the numerator and the denominator for every row possible. Numerator Elements of the Pascal’s triangle form multiple horizontal rows (n) and diagonal rows (r). The elements of the ? rst diagonal row (r = 1) are a linear function of the row number n. For every other row, each element is a parabolic function of n.Where r represents the element number and n represents the row number. The row numbers that represents the same sets of numbers as the numerators in Lacsap’s triangle, are the second row (r = 2) and the seventh row (r = 7). These rows are respectively the third element in the triangle, and equal to each other bec ause the triangle is symmetrical. In this portfolio we will formulate an equation for only these two rows to ? nd Lacsap’s pattern. The equation for the numerator of the second and seventh row can be represented by the equation: (1/2)n * (n+1) = Nn (r) When n represents the row number.And Nn(r) represents the numerator Therefore the numerator of the sixth row is Nn(r) = (1/2)n * (n+1) Nn(r) = (1/2)6 * (6+1) Nn(r) = (3) * (7) Nn(r) = 21 Figure 2: Lacsap’s fractions. The numbers that are underlined are the numerators. Which are the same as the elements in the second and seventh row of Pascal’s triangle. Figure 1: Pascal’s triangle. The circled sets of numbers are the same as the numerators in Lacsap’s fractions. Graphical Representation The plot of the pattern represents the relationship between numerator and row number. The graph goes up to the ninth row.The rows are represented on the x-axis, and the numerator on the y-axis. The plot forms a parabo lic curve, representing an exponential increase of the numerator compared to the row number. Let Nn be the numerator of the interior fraction of the nth row. The graph takes the shape of a parabola. The graph is parabolical and the equation is in the form: Nn = an2 + bn + c The parabola passes through the points (0,0) (1,1) and (5,15) At (0,0): 0 = 0 + 0 + c ! ! At (1,1): 1 = a + b ! ! ! At (5,15): 15 = 25a + 5b ! ! ! 15 = 25a + 5(1 – a) ! 15 = 25a + 5 – 5a ! 15 = 20a + 5 ! 10 = 20a! ! ! ! ! ! ! therefore c = 0 therefore b = 1 – a Check with other row numbers At (2,3): 3 = (1/2)n * (n+1) ! (1/2)(2) * (2+1) ! (1) * (3) ! N3 = (3) therefore a = (1/2) Hence b = (1/2) as well The equation for this graph therefore is Nn = (1/2)n2 + (1/2)n ! which simpli? es into ! Nn = (1/2)n * (n+1) Denominator The difference between the numerator and the denominator of the same fraction will be the difference between the denominator of the current fraction and the previous fraction . Ex. If you take (6/4) the difference is 2. Therefore the difference between the previous denominator of (3/2) and (6/4) is 2. ! Figure 3: Lacsap’s fractions showing differences between denominators Therefore the general statement for ? nding the denominator of the (r+1)th element in the nth row is: Dn (r) = (1/2)n * (n+1) – r ( n – r ) Where n represents the row number, r represents the the element number and Dn (r) represents the denominator. Let us use the formula we have obtained to ?nd the interior fractions in the 6th row. Finding the 6th row – First denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Second denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! denominator = 6 ( 6/2 + 1/2 ) – 1 ( 6 – 1 ) ! = 6 ( 3. 5 ) – 1 ( 5 ) ! 21 – 5 = 16 denominator = 6 ( 6/2 + 1/2 ) – 2 ( 6 – 2 ) ! = 6 ( 3. 5 ) – 2 ( 4 ) ! = 21 – 8 = 13 ! ! -Third denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Fourth denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Fifth denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! denominator = 6 ( 6/2 + 1/2 ) – 3 ( 6 – 3 ) ! = 6 ( 3. 5 ) – 3 ( 3 ) ! = 21 – 9 = 12 denominator = 6 ( 6/2 + 1/2 ) – 2 ( 6 – 2 ) ! = 6 ( 3. 5 ) – 2 ( 4 ) ! = 21 – 8 = 13 denominator = 6 ( 6/2 + 1/2 ) – 1 ( 6 – 1 ) ! = 6 ( 3. 5 ) – 1 ( 5 ) ! = 21 – 5 = 16 ! ! We already know from the previous investigation that the numerator is 21 for all interior fractions of the sixth row.Using these patterns, the elements of the 6th row are 1! (21/16)! (21/13)! (21/12)! (21/13)! (21/16)! 1 Finding the 7th row – First denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Second denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Third denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Fourth denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! denominator = 7 ( 7/2 + 1/2 ) – 1 ( 7 – 1 ) ! =7(4)–1(6) ! = 28 – 6 = 22 denominator = 7 ( 7/2 + 1/2 ) – 2 ( 7 – 2 ) ! =7(4)–2(5) ! = 28 – 10 = 18 denominator = 7 ( 7/2 + 1/2 ) – 3 ( 7 – 3 ) ! =7(4)–3(4) ! = 28 – 12 = 16 denominator = 7 ( 7/2 + 1/2 ) – 4 ( 7 – 3 ) ! =7(4)–3(4) ! = 28 – 12 = 16 ! ! ! ! ! ! Fifth denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – Sixth denominator ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! denominator = 7 ( 7/2 + 1/2 ) – 2 ( 7 – 2 ) ! ! =7(4)–2(5) ! ! = 28 – 10 = 18 ! ! denominator = 7 ( 7/2 + 1/2 ) – 1 ( 7 – 1 ) ! =7(4)–1(6) ! = 28 – 6 = 22 We already know from the previous investigation that the numerator is 28 for all interior fractions of the seventh row. Using these patterns, the elements of the 7th row are 1 (28/22) (28/18) (28/16) (28/16) (28/18) (28/22) 1 General Statement To ? nd a general statement we combined the two equations needed to ? nd the numerator and to ? nd the denominator. Which are (1/2)n * (n+1) to ? d the numerator and (1/2)n * (n+1) – n( r – n) to ? nd the denominator. By letting En(r) be the ( r + 1 )th element in the nth row, the general statement is: En(r) = {[ (1/2)n * (n+1) ] / [ (1/2)n * (n+1) – r( n – r) ]} Where n represents the row number and r represents the the element number. Limitations The ‘1’ at the beginning and end of each row is taken out before making calculations. Therefore the second element in each equation is now regarded as the ? rst element. Secondly, the r in the general statement should be greater than 0. Thirdly the very ? rst row of the given pattern is counted as the 1st row.Lacsap’s triangle is symmetrical like Pascal’s, therefore the elements on the left side of the line of symmetry are the same as the elements on the right side of the line of symmetry, as shown in Figure 4. Fourthly, we only formulated equations based on the second and the seventh rows in Pascal’s triangle. These rows are the only ones that have the same pattern as Lacsap’s fractions. Every other row creates either a linear equation or a different parabolic equation which doesn’t match Lacsap’s pattern. Lastly, all fractions should be kept when reduced; provided that no fractions common to the numerator and the denominator are to be cancelled. ex. 6/4 cannot be reduced to 3/2 ) Figure 4: The triangle has the same fractions on both sides. The only fractions that occur only once are the ones crossed by this line of symmetry. 1 Validity With this statement you can ? nd any fraction is Lacsap’s pattern and to prove this I will use this equation to ? nd the elements of the 9th row. The subscript represents the 9th row, and the number in parentheses represents the element number. – E9(1)!! ! – First element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – E9(2)!! ! – Second element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – E9(3)!! ! – Third element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 1( 9 – 1) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 1( 8 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 8 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 37 ]} 45/37 {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 2( 9 – 2) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 2 ( 7 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 14 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 31 ]} 45/31 {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 3 ( 9 – 3) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 3( 6 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 18 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 27 ]} 45/27 E9(4)!! ! – Fourth element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – E9(4)!! ! – Fifth element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – E9(3)!! ! – Sixth element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! – E9(2)!! ! – Seventh element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! â₠¬â€œ E9(1)!! ! – Eighth element! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 4( 9 – 4) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 4( 5 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 20 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 25 ]} 45/25 {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 4( 9 – 4) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 4( 5 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 20 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 25 ]} 45/25 {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 3 ( 9 – 3) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 3( 6 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 18 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 27 ]} 45/27 {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 2( 9 – 2) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 2 ( 7 ) ] } {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 14 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 31 ]} 45/31 {[ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ n( n/2 + 1/2 ) – r( n – r) ]} {[ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) ] / [ 9( 9/2 + 1/2 ) – 1( 9 – 1) ]} {[ 9( 5 ) ] / [ 9( 5 ) – 1( 8 ) ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 45 – 8 ]} {[ 45 ] / [ 37 ]} 45/37 From these calculations, derived from the general statement the 9th row is 1 (45/37)! ! (45/31)! ! (45/27)! (45/25)! (45/25)! (45/27) (45/31)! (45/37)! ! 1 Using the general statement we have obtained from Pascal’s triangle, and following the limitations stated, we will be able to produce the elements of any given row in Lacsap’s pattern. This equation determines the numerator and the denominator for every row possible.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essays

Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essays Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essay Occupational Safety and Health Administration Essay On December 29. 1970 Congress passed the Occupational Safety and Health Act. The intent of this act as quoted from the act itself is: To assure safe and healthful on the job conditions for working work forces and adult females ; by authorising enforcement of the criterions developed under the Act ; by helping and promoting the States in their attempts to guarantee safe and healthful on the job conditions ; by supplying for research. information. instruction. and preparation in the field of occupational safety and wellness ; and for other intents. This act requires employers to supply workplaces that are free from serious recognized jeopardies and to follow with occupational safety and wellness criterions. The mission of OSHA is to salvage lives. prevent hurts. and protect the wellness of America’s workers. Since 1970 OSHA has grown to over 1. 130 inspectors in provinces under federal OSHA legal power. Personnel besides includes research workers. applied scientists. doctors. p edagogues. criterions authors and other support forces spread over more than 200 offices throughout the state ( OSHA FAQ ) . Since 1970 workplace human deaths have been reduced by half. Even with this diminution 14 Americans are killed on the occupation every individual twenty-four hours of the twelvemonth. In add-on. 10s of 1000s die every twelvemonth from workplace disease and over 4. 6 million workers are earnestly injured on the occupation ( OSHA FAQ ) . The Department of Labor which conducts the OSHA reviews wants workers to experience safe on the occupation. Workers have rights that include the right to bespeak an review. hold a representative nowadays at the review. have unsafe substances identified. be informed about exposure to jeopardies. and have employer misdemeanors posted at the worksite ( OSH Act ) . In subdivision 5 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 there is a set of responsibilities that employers and employees are supposed to follow in order to be best assisted by OSHA. This General Duty Clause provinces: ( a ) Each employer – ( 1 ) shall supply to each of his employees employment and a topographic point of employment which are free from recognized jeopardies that are doing or are likely to do decease or serious physical injury to his employees ; ( 2 ) shall follow with occupational safety and wellness criterions promulgated under this Act. ( B ) Each employee shall follow with occupational safety and wellness criterions and all regulations. ordinances. and orders issued pursuant to this Act which are applicable to his ain actions and behavior. In subdivision 8 of the OSH Act sing Inspections and Probes it states: ( a ) In order to transport out the intents of this Act. the Secretary. upon appropriate certificates to the proprietor. operator or agent in charge is authorized- ( 1 ) to come in without hold and at sensible times any mill. works constitution. building site or other country. workplace or environment where work is performed by an employee of an employer ; and ( 2 ) to inspect and look into during regular on the job hours and at other sensible times. and within sensible bounds and in a sensible mode. any such topographic point of employment and all pertinent conditions. constructions. machines. setup. devices. equipment. and stuffs therein. and to oppugn in private any such employer. proprietor operator. agent or employee. In Marshall v. Barlow’s Inc. . 436 U. S. 307 ( 1978 ) . this instance involved the constitutionality of a proviso in the Occupational Safety and Health Act that permitted inspectors to come in premises without a warrant to inspect for safety jeopardies and misdemeanor of OSHA ordinances. The Court held that this proviso violated the Fourth Amendment. In The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. commentary is given on this instance. One issue in the instance was whether a warrant was required. The Court had antecedently held that no warrant was required to inspect either the premises of a spirits licensee or a accredited gun dealer’s storage room. Distinguishing these earlier instances because each concerned a closely regulated industry. the Court in Barlow’s concluded that necessitating warrants in the OSHA context would non impose serious loads on the review system or the courts ( p. 316 ) . As for the evidences to obtain an review warrant. Barlow’s follows the regulation in Camara v. Municipal Court ( 1967 ) that traditional likely cause is unneeded if the governments can demo that the review conforms to reasonable legislative or administrative standards ( p. 538 ) . So. the Court in Barlow’s concluded that a warrant showing that a particular concern has been chosen for an OSHA hunt on the footing of a general administrative program for the enforcement of the Act derived from impersonal sources ( p. 321 ) would be sufficient. because it would guarantee against arbitrary choice of employers. Marshall v. Barlow did small to alter the frequence and effectivity of OSHA reviews. First. OSHA ordinances apply to 1000000s of concerns and are enforced by merely 1. 130 inspectors. Obvious rules of good direction would direct these inspectors to concerns that justified to hold an review based on accident history and the figure of employee ailments. OSHA’s directors had already been utilizing this type of program prior to the Barlow review since Barlow’s Inc. was selected for an review based on its accident history. In the AEI Journal on Government and Society . we are given insight on how the Barlow determination protected concern. yet still allowed OSHA inspectors to obtain Ex Parte warrants. Barlow left open the inquiry whether judicial orders for reviews routinely sought under the secretary’s bing ordinances when employers refuse entry are the functional equivalent of warrants and therefore fulfill the Fourth Amendment ( 6 ) . When OSHA’s inspectors conduct condemnable probes with the aid of a U. S. lawyer. they may obtain warrants by telephone pursuant to Govern 41 ( degree Celsius ) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure ( 7 ) . The Barlow determination made the point of stating that if the intent of an OSHA hunt is to obtain grounds of offense instead than civil misdemeanors ; likely cause that condemnable behavior has occurred must be shown to warrant a warrant. OSHA Instruction STP 2. 18 reiterates that the Supreme Court held that the Fourth Amendment requires a warrant for a nonconsensual OSHA review. However. the Court recognized the importance of surprise in the behavior of reviews ( as reflected in the Act’s general prohibition against progress notice of an review ) . in forestalling the rapid change or camouflage of misdemeanors so that they escape the inspector’s notice . The direction goes on to state that: The Court explicitly noted the Secretary of Labor’s authorization to proclaim a ordinance under which warrants could be sought antique parte ; i. e. . without the cognition or engagement of the employer. Such warrants might be sought after refusal of an employer to allow entry for an review or. in some instances. prior to any effort to derive entry. This process has helped maximise the effectivity of condemnable enforcement bureaus since Barlow did non restrict surprise reviews. The lone of import precaution that the Barlow determination offered employers was the protection against reviews conducted in bad religion or for intents of torment. There are some cases when an review requires no warrant. An article titled Warrantless OSHA Inspections by Mark E. Farrell gives an illustration of how this state of affairs can happen. Farrell summarizes the inside informations in Lakeland Enterprises of Rhinelander. Inc. v. Chao. 402 F. 3d 739 ( 7th Cir. 2005 ) . A cloaca and H2O contractor ( Lakeland ) in northern Wisconsin was executing digging work at an industrial park when an OSHA inspector. drive by on the public street. decided to halt and execute an ad-lib review. After walking past traffic cones that were barricading street traffic from the undertaking site. the inspector observed a Lakeland employee unearthing a trench with a backhoe while another employee worked at the underside of the trench. The trench was about 18 pess deep and six pess broad at the underside and did non incorporate a ladder or trench box . When the contractor’s undertaking overseer began discoursing with the OSHA inspector. the worker in the trench climbed up one of the walls to issue. which resulted in loose soil falling back into the trench. The employee executing the digging work admitted that he knew that the other worker was non supposed to be working in the trench and that he failed to take him ( Farrell ) . Occupational safety and health administration ended up issuing three commendations and assessed a $ 49. 000 civil punishment against the contractor. including a willful misdemeanor for allowing an employee to work in an unprotected trench ( in misdemeanor of 29 CFR Â § 1926. 652 ( a ) . During the hearing. the contractor moved to suppress the grounds obtained from the inspection on the footing that the OSHA inspector’s warrantless hunt of the digging site violated the Fourth Amendment . The administrative jurisprudence justice denied the gesture. happening that the contractor had no right of privateness at the digging site because the land was located on a public route. The administrative jurisprudence justice besides concluded that any Fourth Amendment claim was waived because the contractor failed to object to the review or inquire for a warrant at the site ( Farrell ) . It is of import to understand that no beforehand notice of a worksite review demands to be given. Unannounced reviews are an of import tool in OSHA’s mission to advance safe and healthful on the job conditions at all times. OSHA has come a long manner since 1970 to assist American go a safe topographic point to work particularly when compared to some parts of the universe. With a good budget and better Torahs there are fewer hurts every twelvemonth. OSHA genuinely is one of the administrative bureaus that exist for the bettering of the quality of life for the workers of our state. Plants Cited Farrell. Mark E. Warrantless OSHA Inspections Newsletter Article. Lorman Education Services – Continuing Education Seminars. Web. 1 Mar. 2011. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. lorman. com/newsletters/article. php? article_id=346 A ; newsletter_id=73 A ; category_id=3 gt ; . Hall. Kermit L. Marshall v. Barlow’s Inc. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. 2005. OSH Act. OSHA Standards. Inspections. Citations and Penalties. Occupational Safety and Health Administration – Home. OSHA Office of Training and Education. May 1996. Web. 2 Mar. 2011. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. gov/doc/outreachtraining/htmlfiles/introsha. hypertext markup language gt ; . OSHA and the Fourth Amendment. AEI JOURNAL ON GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY ( 1978 ) : 6-7. AEI JOURNAL ON GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY. Web. United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970. Print United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Inspections and Probes: Obtaining Warrants on an Ex Parte Basis and Prior to Attempting Entry. Bruce Hillenbrand Acting Director. Federal Compliance and State Programs. 26 Feb. 1981. Web. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp. show_document? p_table=DIRECTIVES A ; p_id=1863 gt ; . United States of America. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Frequently Asked Questions. Web. 1 Mar. 2011. lt ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. gov/OSHA_FAQs. hypertext markup language gt ; .