Social Realism Essays - Art Movements, Art History, Modern Art

Social Realism Social Realism In Art Social realism, in art, describes both a specific stylistic approach and an overall attitude toward the subject. Social realism aims toward the not so lovely part of life. Its goal is not to amuse but to show the observer the evils of poverty , immorality and war. Social Realists believed that paintings should describe and express the people, their problems and their times. The roots of social realism lie in the 18th century. Some of the artists involved in the start of social realism are William Hogarth, Francisco de Goya and Honor Daumier. William Hogarth attacked drunkenness and foolish extravagance with his engravings of the 1730's to the '50's. Goya had a series of horrifying etchings titled The Disasters of War. Daumier had satiricial lithographs of the 1830's to '40's, that reflect deep social concern. Social realism painting declined, in France, after the 1860's which was the time it became important in Great Britian. Sir Luke Fildes's Applicants for Admission to a Casual Ward, Frank Holl's Newgate: Committed for Trial, and Hubert Herkomer's Pressing to the West depict grimy scenes of urban poverty. In the 1900's the British social realist tradition was carried on in the United States by the Ashcan school. After 1920 its emphasis was carried on by several major American painters. Ben Shahn was one of the artists in the 1920's and early '30's. He showed laborers and other victims of the Depression as well as scenes of the Sacco and Vanzetti trial and execution. Also Ivan Albright and Edward Hopper focused on the isolation of individual people in a society.

ACT Comparison - PrepScholar 2016 Students Encyclopedia

SAT / ACT Comparison - PrepScholar 2016 Students' Encyclopedia SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Colleges that require the SAT or ACT as part of their application procedures accept either test equally. Both the SAT and ACT are meant to measure academic ability and college readiness, but they differ in format, content, and overall structure. Note: this article is a series in the PrepScholar2016 Students' Encyclopedia, a free students' and parents' SAT / ACT guide that provides encyclopedic knowledge. Read all the articles here! Historically, students who lived on the East and West coasts tended to take the SAT and students in the Midwest took the ACT. Now the number of students who take these tests is approximately equal, with the number of ACT test-takers surpassing that of SAT test-takers for the first time in 20. Since colleges consider both tests to have equal validity, students benefit from choosing the one on which they can gain the stronger score. To determine which test better suits their abilities and test-taking styles, students can familiarize themselves with the differences between the SAT and ACT. Additionally, students can take official practice tests and use them to predict their probable score range. Differences in Format The SAT has three main sections, Critical Reading, Writing, and Mathematics. These sections are divided into 10 subsections, which are interspersed in various order between test administrations. Each subsection is 10, 20, or 25 minutes long. There aretwo 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section in SAT Critical Reading. There aretwo 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section in SAT Math. There isone 25 minute section for the essay and one 25 minute and one 10 minute section ofmultiple choice in SAT Writing. There is one 25 minute SAT experimental section. This section is unscored and could be Critical Reading, Mathematics, or Writing. The SAT consists of a total of 3 hours and 45 minutes, plus additional time for instructions and three 5 minute breaks. While the SAT is divided into tensubsections, the ACT tests its four subjects in four long sections. Once a section is complete, students will not return to it during the test. The ACT has four main sections: English, Mathematics, Reading, and Science. Students may also choose to take an optional 30 minute essay. While the order of SAT sections is unpredictable, ACT sections are always presented in this order, with the optional essay given at the end of the test. The sections are timed as follows: ACT English is 45 minutes. ACT Mathematics is 60 minutes. ACT Reading is 35 minutes. ACT Science is 35 minutes. The optional essay is 30 minutes. Unlike the SAT, there is no experimental section on the ACT. It comprises2 hours and 55 minutes, or 3 hours and 25 minutes with the essay. While the multiple choice questions on the SAT have five options and a 0.25 point deduction for wrong answers, ACT questions have four answer choices and no penalty for incorrect responses. For students deciding between the SAT and ACT, the above mentioned differences in format may be important factors in their choice. Students who prefer to focus on one subject at a time may benefit fromthe structure of the ACT, while those who feel energized switching between topics may prefer the experience of taking the SAT. Since anxiety is common around these admissionstests, students mayalso consider which exam structure helps relieve their stress. Some may prefer to divide the test into shorter sections that are finished in less time, as on the SAT. Others may benefit from the predictable nature of the ACT and dislike the variables, such as order of passages and the experimental section, that are part of the SAT. Both the SAT and ACTare similar in that they are strictly timed. Students may not return to a section afterthe allotted time has come to an end. The following information suggests a general amount of time per question. However, the actual time given to each question likely varies by each question's difficulty level, with easy questions taking less time and difficult questions requiring more. SAT Critical Reading: 54 seconds per question SAT Math: 67 seconds per question SAT Writing: 43 seconds per question ACT English: 36 seconds per question ACT Math: 60 seconds per question ACT Reading: 53 seconds per question ACT Science: 53 seconds per question Students typically report havingmore difficulty with timing on the ACT. Students who struggle to answer questions at a fast pace may perform better on the SAT. Since the ACT features four long sections, students have reported that they have a difficult timerecovering if they encounter time management problemswithin a particular section.Timing and pacing are additional considerations for students when determining the suitability of the SAT and ACT for their college planning. Differences in Content and Skills Both the SAT and ACT purport to measure the skills of problem solving and literacy needed for college level courses, but they do so in different ways. The SAT has three main sections, the Critical Reading, Mathematics, and Writing, while the ACT has four: Reading, Mathematics, English, and Science. The SAT Critical Reading is comparable to the ACT Reading, SAT Math is similar to ACT Math, and SAT Writing is analogous to ACT English. The ACT Science section is unique and has no counterpart onthe SAT. While the aforementioned sections test similar skills, they have key differences in content and question types. By familiarizing themselves with these differences, students can further determine the fitof each test withtheir testing style and academic goals. SAT Critical Reading and ACT Reading Comparison Both the SAT Critical Reading and ACT Reading sections test students' reading comprehension and understanding of vocabulary. Both sections feature passage-based questions that ask students to analyze prose, make inferences, interpret details, glean the meaning of vocabulary in context, and determine author tone and perspective. Preparation for these sections includes review of literary terms, like theme, symbol, and simile, and practice with skimming text for key information and details. The main difference between the SAT and ACT in their reading sections is the SAT's emphasis on high level vocabulary words. The SAT features 19 sentence completion questions, which often require students to understand the meaning of difficult vocabulary. The ACT, on the other hand, asks questions that focus on vocabulary in context. These types of questions, which also appear on the SAT's passage-based questions, ask about relativelycommon words that may have multiple meanings in various contexts. Students with a strong vocabulary or who enjoy studying high level words may prefer the SAT, while students who respond to straightforward wording may perform better on the ACT. The SAT Critical Reading is divided into two 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section, with the possibility of an additional 25 minute experimental section. Each section begins with 6 to 8 sentence completions, followed by passage-based questions. The ACT Reading is one 35 minute section that features four passages, or five with a paired passage exercise. The passages always come from prose fiction or literary narrative, the social sciences, the natural sciences, and humanities, in that order, and are followedby 10 questions. As with the overall structure of the ACT, its Reading section is consistent and predictable, a feature that mayreduce test-taking anxiety for somestudents. SAT Mathematics and ACT Mathematics Comparison Both the SAT Math and ACT Math test concepts in pre-algebra, algebra, geometry, probability, and statistics. The ACT additionally tests trigonometry, as well as, occasionally, matrices, complex numbers, and conic sections.Both SAT Math and ACT Mathask students to solve single and multi-step problems, often by combining concepts from multiple fields of study, and to interpret data from charts and graphs. In addition to testing more advanced math concepts, the ACTrequires students to memorize any needed formulas or facts. The SAT, on the other hand, presents students with formulas to measure area, volume, and circumference, as well as several facts related to geometry at the beginning of each math section. Both SAT and ACT Math sections allow the use of calculators. The SAT Math asks 44 multiple choice questions and 10 student-produced questions, while the ACT Math asks 60 multiple choice questions. The SAT is divided into two 25 minute sections and one 20 minute section. ACT Math is presented in one 60 minute section. Students who consider math to be their strength and have progressed into high school trigonometry may prefer the ACT, because it both tests more advanced concepts and requires stamina over one longer section. For students who feel uneasy about 60 multiple choice questions in a row, the SAT may be a better choice. SAT Writing and ACT English Comparison Both the SAT Writing and ACT English test students' understanding of the rules of English grammar and the organization of ideas within paragraphs. SAT Writing includes a mandatory 25 minute essay, which accounts for about 30% of students' Writing score. On the ACT, the essay is optional and does not get factored into the English section or composite score. SAT Writing asks 49 multiple choice in one 25 minute section and one 10 minute. ACT English asks 75 multiple choice questions in one 45 minute section. Its questions always refer to five passages, while the SAT asks about a combination of individual sentences and paragraphs. Both sections require an understanding of grammar, usage, diction, punctuation, parallel structure, and number agreement. Students must be able to identify errors within sentences and to choose appropriate revisions to correct them. Both sections also ask students to rearrange sentences within paragraphs to improve the flow and sequencing of ideas. The ACT, in particular, focuses on these skills of organization and grammar within the context of longer passages. It does not ask about individual sentences, like the SAT does, but instead focuses its questions around paragraphs and passages. The SAT, on the other hand, asks "identifying sentence errors" and "improving sentences" questions that are entirely focused on individual sentences. Only its "improving paragraphs" questions resemble the ACT's passage-based grammar questions. Given these differences, students can determine where their strengths lie, whether they be in identifying grammar rules based on a single sentence or in rearranging the structure of and ideas within longer passages. ACT Science Only the ACT features a Science section, though the SAT Critical Reading may have a passage derived from the field of natural sciences. The ACT Science section is 35 minutes long and features seven passages. Three of these passages feature data representation, three present research summaries, and one discusses conflicting viewpoints. The scientific concepts tested on the ACT Science are generally basic and may refer to biology, earth science, chemistry, or physics, along with some elementary math. ACT Science questions often ask students to interpret data, compare scientific opinions, and understand and evaluate experimental designs. While the questions are related to scientific opinions and experiments, they are said to test skills of reading comprehension more so than specific content knowledge of science. While students who excel in science may prefer the ACT over the SAT because of this section, they would benefit from understanding that manytest experts liken ACT Science to a reading test rather than to a traditional science test. SAT Essay and Optional ACT Essay Comparison Besides the presence of a Science section on the ACT, the essay is another major difference between the SAT and ACT. The 25 minute SAT essay is mandatory and always comes at the beginning of the exam. The 30 minute ACT essay is optional and, if selected, is administered as the last section. While the SAT essay is part of a student's Writing and composite score, the ACT essay score is not factored in. Prompts for the SAT essay are often abstract, philosophical, and/or related to a social issue. They generally begin with a quote or excerpt from a work of prose, followed by a question to elicit the test-taker's opinion. Test-takersare asked to present their point of view and support it with examples from their reading, studies, experience, or observations. Most SAT expertsadvise students to use a 5 paragraph structure, provide three distinct examples, and choose a strong position, rather than a neutral one, in order to gain a high score. SAT essays are graded by two readers and receive a score between 2 and 12. Sample SAT Essay Prompt The ACT essay also asks test-takers to develop and support their point of view, but the prompts are generally considered to be less abstract than SAT prompts and more grounded in students' experience. ACT prompts are frequentlyrelated to students' experience in school and may elicit test-takers' thoughts on education and learning. Sample ACT Essay Prompt Students who consider writing to be their strength may appreciate that the SAT essay is a part of their overall score. At the same time, theymust consider what date they plan to takethe SAT, as the redesigned SAT, set to begin in March of 2016, will feature a significantly different essay section. Deciding Between the SAT and ACT By researching the differences in content, structure, and question types between the SAT and ACT, students can gain insight into which test better aligns withtheir skills and test-taking style. Since colleges giveboth tests equal consideration, students benefit from choosing the one on which they can achieve a higher score. Students can retake either test several times to improve their scores. Colleges differ in their policies towards test scores and score reports. Some may require that students send all of their results fromeverytesting date, while others allow students to select which score reports are sent. A number of selective colleges require SAT Subject Tests along with the general SATor solely the ACT, a policy which may constituteanother important practical consideration for students when deciding between the two. By researching the differences between the two tests and the standardized testing policies of their colleges of interest, along with taking official SAT and ACT practice tests, students can determine which admissions test better suits their academic strengths and overall approach to the college application process. Redesign Alert The SAT has undergone major revisions and will debut a redesigned version in March of 2016.The new SAT will resemble the ACT in several ways. For one, the SAT essay will be made optional and relocated to the end of the test. Instead of the current 25 minutes, the essay sectionwill be 50 minutes and will ask students to analyze an argument made bya provided passage. Like the ACT, the new SAT will ask about grammar and vocabulary within the context of passages. Sentence completion questions will be eliminated, and vocabulary questions will focus on easy and medium level words within the context of paragraphs and passages. The new SAT will also resemble the ACT by having four answer choices on multiple choice questions instead of five and by using rights-only scoring that does not deduct points for incorrect answers. The ACT is also undergoing some changes, although not as dramatic as the SAT. Its essay section will be lengthened to 40 minutes and will ask students to evaluate various perspectives on an issue and develop their own argument. Like the SAT, the ACT Reading will feature paired passages, which students will be asked to compare and contrast. On the ACT Science, some students will encounter six passages, while others will find the usual seven. Most ACT experts that the test has been getting more challenging and fast-paced in recent years. Because of this apparent increase in the level of rigor, students may find the best representation of the official ACT in practice tests derived from recent years. Read more from theSAT Encyclopedia! Further Reading What Are the Differences Between the SAT and ACT? Complete Comparison Charts: ACT vs. SAT Is the ACT Easier Than the SAT?

An Analysis of Leadership Models

An Analysis of Leadership Models Each theory provides a model for effectively steering an organization. Three contemporary theories are widely applied in organizations today; Transactional Leadership, Charismatic leadership and finally transformational leadership. Each of these theories has its strong points weaknesses and challenges in real world application. These are not by any means the only theory – there are many others applied in other leadership situations. A lot of management research has gone into finding the perfect leadership solution. In this paper, we will review three leadership theories, their pros and cons and discuss examples of each theory. Page 1 Transactional Leadership Transactional Leadership model Leadership style plays a crucial role in the development of an organization. It is a leadership style that is often used by many companies assumes that people are motivated strictly by reward and punishment. This style generally does not appeal to the values, morals, or other intrinsic characteristics of most people. The transactional leader is highly focused on task, provides very clear direction, and oversees productivity in detail. When a subordinate fails, the next step is a penalty or punishment. The introduction of the task versus people orientation and the idea of leadership styles are widely accepted today. The model does have a downside, however: It does not consider other potential factors that may influence outcomes and therefore affect leadership effectiveness. While a two-dimensional task-versus-people perspective might be a helpful way to talk about leader behaviors, it by no means tells the whole story about leadership. Research continues to this day on these important questions, and this has led to additional new theories of leadership (Yukl, Gary A. Yukl). Assumptions ? ? ? ? ? Style The transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. Transactional leadership believes that punishment and reward motivate people People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When people have agreed to do a job, a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do. Page 2 The early stage of Transactional Leadership is in negotiating the contract whereby the subordinate is given a salary and other benefits, and the company (and by implication the subordinate’s manager) gets authority over the subordinate. The „transaction’ is the money or any other award that the company pays to its subordinates for their compliance and effort (Kurnik, 2012). When the Transactional Leader allocates work to a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for their failure (just as they are rewarded for succeeding). The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating to defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below expectation. Transactional leadership has more of a „telling style’. Transactional leadership is based on the fact that reward or punishment is dependent on the performance. Even though researchers have highlighted its limitations, transactional leadership is still prevalent in real workplace and more companies are adopting transactional leadership to increase the performance of its employees. This approach is. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a ‘selling’ style, Transactional Leadership, once the contract is in place, takes a ‘telling’ style. Advantages of Transactional leadership This method works in most of the cases, where it’s applied, provided the employees are motivated by rewards. It is a proven compliance strategy, which works best if the top most leader in the hierarchy is capable of making most of the important decisions and is a strong personality. Page 3 Disadvantages of Transactional leadership A powerful and assertive leader will find the transactional model conducive to his way of running things. However, though he will create great followers, he will stunt their growth as leaders. When people get used to doing just what they are told and only as much they are told, they stop thinking ‘out of the box’. Original thinking is not really promoted in this system, because of which, an obedient workforce will be created with a lack of imagination. New leaders will be tough to find from the lower strata of power hierarchy. This leadership model will create a stressful work environment. Productivity will be maintained but innovations and breakthroughs will be tough to find. Examples of Transactional leadership In practice, there is sufficient truth in Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply-and-demand situation of much employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow’s Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective. The main limitation of this leadership is that it assumes that people are largely motivated by simple rewards. Under transactional leadership, employees can’t do much to improve job satisfaction. Transaction leadership has been ineffective in providing skilled employees to their organization. This style of leadership is least interested in changing the work environment. Experts do not recommend this approach. Transactional leadership focuses more on management of punishments and rewards (Kurnik, 2012). Page 4 Charismatic Leadership The sociologist Max Weber defined charismatic authority in 1947 as â€Å"resting on devotion to the exceptional sanctity, heroism or exemplary character of an individual person, and of the normative patterns or order revealed or ordained by him. † Charismatic authority is one of three forms of authority laid out in Weber’s tripartite classification of authority, the other two being traditional authority and rational-legal authority. The concept has acquired wide usage among sociologists. Weber in his writings about charismatic authority, Weber applies the term charisma to â€Å"a certain quality of an individual personality, by virtue of which he is set apart from ordinary men and treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional powers or qualities. These are not accessible to the ordinary person, but are regarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader1 Charismatic authority is as said to be power legitimized on the basis of a leader’s exceptional personal qualities or the demonstration of extraordinary insight and accomplishment, which inspire loyalty and obedience from followers. ] As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader; the absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority’s power dissolving. However, due to its individual nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the pe rceived legitimacy of the authority than Weber? s other forms of authority. Charismatic leaders can lead organizations into new areas, inspire followers, and sometimes obtain extraordinary performance and results from an organization. Conger Kanungo (1998) articulates the five characteristics of charismatic leaders. ? ? Vision and articulation; Sensitivity to the environment; 1 Weber, Maximillan. Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Chapter: â€Å"The Nature of Charismatic Authority and its Routinization† translated by A. R. Anderson and Talcott Parsons, 1947. Originally published in 1922 in German under the title Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft chapter III,  § 10 2 Kendall, Diana, Jane Lothian Murray, and Rick Linden. Sociology in our time (2nd ed. ), 2000. Scarborough, On: Nelson, 438-439. Page 5 ? ? ? Sensitivity to member needs; Personal risk taking; Performing unconventional behaviour. Advantages of charismatic leaders 1) They can sense the gap between what an organization is giving to its followers and what its followers require from the organization. Therefore they are able to create a vision that is in line with these requirements. ) Since members of the organization feel that they re part of this vision they are part of this vision, they support the goals of the organization (employee loyalty) Disadvantages of charismatic leaders 1). Followers may find this transformation uncomfortable and disrupti ve to the workplace or to them personally. Others may have difficulty relating to the leader’s vision of the future. Charismatic leaders also rely heavily on their personal charm, and perceptions, which could be significantly influenced by rumors or â€Å"negative press. † 2) They cause more harm than good. eg Adolf Hitler. 3) They lack of Successors and Visionaries. A charismatic leader often retains the majority of the control in the office because he believes in himself so much. He may have difficulty turning over control to others because he enjoys having the control or doesn’t feel anyone else is able to handle the duties like he can. This type of situation potentially leaves the company without any knowledgeable successors should the charismatic leader leave the company. Without giving others the authority and freedom to take some of the control, the company’s vision for the future is limited to the ideas of the leader. This type of environment may also squash some of the creative problem solving from other employees in the company, particularly if any ideas presented are pushed aside by the leader. 4) A charismatic leader sometimes gets so caught up in his control that he is unable to clearly see potential dangers with the company. The confidence he has in his abilities makes him feel that the company’s success will continue indefinitely. If he doesn’t have any other management Page 6 personnel on the same level with the same information, he may potentially miss a threat to the company’s financial welfare. 5) Overreliance on the leader. The charismatic leader wins over the employees of the company with his motivational leadership style. While employees may find inspiration in this type of leadership, they may also rely too heavily on the person in charge. The employees begin associating the success of the company solely with the leader. They may fail to see that all employees are a valuable part of making the company a success. This saddles the leader with a huge responsibility for both keeping the company running and motivating the staff. Examples of Charismatic Leadership Bill Clinton He was considered one of the most charismatic leaders of our times. Clinton connected and inspired. He had an ability to make his audience feel as though as individuals they were each the most important person in the room. His use of eye contact, infectious smile and self-awareness ensured that he made a powerful impact on those he met. No wander he was the president with the highest opinion poll ratings at the time of leaving the presidency, even though his tenure had been marred by the Monica Lewinsky scandal. Obama is a charismatic leader, during his inauguration as the 44th president U. S. A; over 2 million people were present. He accomplished fetes such as managing to raise funds in an unprecedented fashion, that is, small sums of money from numerous persons . He has been applauded as an outstanding orator, captive speaker and brilliant man. He inspires his followers, moves them to tears and gives the hope. He feverishly wooed the citizens to vote for him. Adolf Hitler Hitler gained this ‘charismatic status’ partially because of his political skill and magnetism. He had experienced considerable success in cutting the unemployment figures and this was essential. However, it was somewhat overshadowed by his unshakeable conviction in his own Page 7 historical role. Hitler often spoke of a ‘mission’ and claimed ‘I go with the certainty of a sleepwalker along the path laid out for me by Providence’. It was this ‘mission’ achievable only for Hitler, which allowed him to transcend bureaucratic processes and become ‘charismatic’. 3 3 Noakes, Jeremy and Pridham, Geoffrey (ed. ) Nazism 1919-1945 Volume II: State, Economy and Society 1933-1939 (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2000) Page 8 Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership occurs when a leader takes a visionary position and inspires people to follow. James MacGregor Burns (1978) 1 first introduced the concept of transforming leadership in his descriptive research on political leaders. According to MacGregor, transforming leadership is a process in which â€Å"leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation†. MacGregor differentiated between leadership and management, and related them to characteristics and behaviors. According to MacGregor, the transforming approach creates significant change in people and organizations by changing the employee expectations and aspirations. This is because it redesigns the perceptions and values. Unlike in transactional approach, it is not based on a â€Å"give and take† relationship but on the leader? s personality and abilities, articulation of an energizing vision and challenging goals. He theorized that transforming and transactional leaders were mutually exclusive styles. Bernard M. Bass (1985), expanded upon MacGregor? s work (1985) by explaining the psychological mechanisms that underlie transforming and transactional leadership. Bass used â€Å"transformational† instead of â€Å"transforming† original ideas to develop what is today referred to as Bass? Transformational Leadership Theory. 2 According to Bass, transformational leadership can be defined based on the impact that it has on followers. According to Bass, transformational leaders earn trust, respect and admiration from their followers. Transformational leadership can be found at all leadership levels in an organization. These leaders are seen to have a charismatic appeal in that they are visionary, enthusiastic, passionate, daring, inspiring, energetic, risk takers and thoughtful thinkers. However, charisma alone may not be sufficient to transform an organization. To gear changes, the leaders must exhibit the factors of transformational leadership. The four different components of transformational leadership as suggested by Bernard M. Bass: ? Intellectual Stimulation – Transformational leaders not only challenge the status quo; they also encourage creativity among followers. The leader encourages followers to explore new ways of doing things and new opportunities to learn. Page 9 ? Individualized Consideration – Transformational leadership also involves offering support and encouragement to individual followers. In order to foster supportive relationships, transformational leaders keep lines of communication open so that followers feel free to share ideas and so that leaders can offer direct recognition of each follower? s unique contributions. ? Inspirational Motivation – Transformational leaders have a clear vision that they are able to articulate to followers. These leaders are also able to help followers experience the same passion and motivation to fulfill these goals. ? Idealized Influence – The transformational leaders serves as a role model for followers. Because followers trust and respect the leader, they emulate the leader and internalize his Assumptions People follow a person who inspires them A person with vision and passion can achieve great things Enthusiasm and energy get things done. Leadership style The leadership style adopted is â€Å"selling type†. This involves: Developing the vision – transformational leadership beginnings with development of a vision. This may be done by senior managers, the leader or the team. The leaders then buy and sink into the vision. Selling the vision – the leader then constantly sells the vision to the followers. The leaders seek adoption of the vision through creating trust and any means available to convince the followers. Seeking the way forward – this goes along with the selling activity. Some leaders know the way and simply want others to follow, while others happily lead the exploration of possible routes since they do not have a ready strategy. With a clear vision, though the direction may not be very clear, it is always known. Since this is an ongoing process, a transformational leader will accept the failures and content with whatever progress that is made. Page 10 Leading the charge – the final stage and most critical is that the leader takes the lead and remains central during the action. This is where the leader is a role model –setting the examples by not idling behind their troops. Their unrelenting commitment keeps the team focused. These leaders are people oriented and thus strike a balance between the task and the followers. Transformational leadership borrows a lot from relationship theories also known as transformational theories. Emphasis is laid more on the link formed between the leaders and the followers. The leader inspires and motivates the group to see the importance and significance of the task, but also wants each individual to fulfill their potential. Advantages of Transformational leadership ? This kind of leadership style often brings out high ethical and moral standards. Since the team is all geared towards achieving the organizational task as well as their individual goals. ? Produces a highly energized work force, which is essential to achieve organizational goals. It enables maximization of synergy in the team. Disadvantages of Transformational leadership ? Since the style emphasizes on impression management, it leads to a moral self glorification/ promotion by the leaders. ? Due to the influence emphasis, the followers may be manipulated by the leaders to lose more than they actually gain. ? ? The energy applied by leaders can wear out the followers making them give up. The passion and confidence can easily be mistaken as reality. This may lead to mistakes with consequences being adopted. Though transformational leaders are charismatic, they are not like pure charismatic leaders who succeed through their individualism since they believe in others. Page 11 The leadership style is almost impossible to teach or train since it? s a combination of leadership theories and personal attributes Examples of Transformational Leaders Nelson Mandela South Africa was a racially polarized country for many decades. Nelson Mandela was able to humanize the apartheid leading to the emergence of a nation now recognized globally. His was able to use his charisma to synchronize the haves and have-nots towards a common cause – transforming the nation from the polarity caused by the racial and wealth factors. Mahtama Gandhi Prior to the British occupation, India was amongst the leading goods exporting nation. The British rule was highly mechanized with modern industrial power; they successfully eliminated the local Indian artisans? infrastructure turning India into a big importer and consumer nation. Different leaders were contemplating different ways to drive British in India; he sought to understand the reason for colonialism. According to Mahatma, the way to resist the British was through non violent ways to become self reliant and stop consuming English products. He therefore opted for persistent mass movements that would eventually prove expensive to the British Rule. Gandhi inspires various leaders including South African Nelson Mandela and various movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Sam Walton Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart, often visited Wal-Mart stores across the country to meet with associates to show his appreciation for what they did for the company. Sam Walton gave â€Å"rules for success† in his autobiography, one of which was to appreciate associates with praise (Walton, 1996). Page 12 Jack Welch He was Chairman and CEO of General Electric between 1981 and 2001. During his tenure at GE, the company’s value rose 4,000% and was the most valuable company in the world for a while. Having taken GE with a market capitalization of about $12 billion, Jack Welch turned it into one of the largest and most admired companies in the world, with a market value of about $500 billion, when he stepped down as its CEO 20 years later, in 2000. Although Jack Welch was a celebrated leader of a global manufacturer often noted for its technological prowess, he utilized a very human process to drive change through GE’s vast organization. Having respect for the individual as a pivotal force in organizational change, Welch created a model of exceptional performance every corporate leader can learn from. Page 13 References Lussier/Achua 3rd edition. Effective Leadership. Course text Kurnik, E. (2012). Transactional Leadership. Retrieved March 3, 2012, from HubPages Inc: http://edikurnik. hubpages. com/hub/Transactional-Leadership Yukl, G. A. (Gary A. Yukl). Leadership in Organizations (6th Edition). New Jersy: Prentice Hall. Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. New York. Harper Row Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military and educational impact. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Page 14

Creative Process Assignment Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Creative Process Assignment - Article Example Ideas sometime needs inspiration forexample a personmay have a dream which gives them an idea. This idea has to be worked on immediately thus this person has to wake up in the middle of the night to right down these ideas lest they forget. Normal situations like taking a shower, watching a film or walking in the streets have a tendency of producing big ideas. In my own perspective everybody is creative if they decide to put their mind to it (Jaffe, 2003). Butif we look at the history of creativity which is the cornerstone of advertisements big ideas, we find out that the minds ability to be creative has been overshadowed(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). Creativity is a tough thing for most people yet it is very important in the contemporary society(Jaffe, 2003). Creativity is a process that seeps into the mind of the people. Everybody has their own creative process since each mind is unique thus ideas are born differently(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). I have my own creative process which I use to deliver my big ideas and I have to know my process just like an artist knows his tools. Novelty is my number one tool that I use before even starting the creative process(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). I do not necessarily have to have the idea at hand but if I have novelty I can always come up with new ideas which bring dynamism to the advertising world. My creative process involves four significant stages with the first stage being preparation(Griffin & Morrison, 2010). The preparation stage is where in my opinion makes the creative process tough. An example is when you see a person walking down the street you don’t look twice or remember him or her a few seconds after they have, passed. Why? Because it is ordinary, it is normal nothing stands out worth remembering(Jaffe, 2003). Now this same concept must be played in creativity in advertising. The preparation part means that I have to find out something new, something

((((6))))) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

((((6))))) - Essay Example ademic methods and academic content in curricula but still emphasize to them how important it is to meet the specific needs of the children without necessarily violating the stipulated curriculum. I will inform them their role in helping the children attain the specific components through play and interactive learning and how this helps children attain components such as phonological awareness and comprehend meaning. Learning in my developmentally appropriate preschool classroom will be an interactive affair where preschoolers will freely engage in conversations to acquire oral skills and also participate in plays that will help them interact with the environment to develop cognitive skills. The preschool parents I cross-examined seemed to favor a classroom where their children will be learning literacy skills such as mathematics and sciences. However, they also held the idea that children should be given sometime to play and socialize. They would like the teacher to give personalized attention to children with learning difficulties and give them the opportunity to portray their artistic skills in activities such as modeling and drawing. The parents favor a type of classroom that is physical classroom where both indoors and outdoor activities are undertaken with utter importance. The classroom should have an apmle space for the teacher to interact and help the child. Apparently, this diligently ties with the DAP ideas presented in chapter 15 where more attention should be given to not only academic development, but also exploration of the environment, opportunity/space to manipulate, time to play and time to sleep. Parents seem to realize that play and socialization/interaction are important for the healthy growth and development of

Organisation Learning Essay Example for Free

Organisation Learning Essay Where Argyris and Schon were the first to propose models that facilitate organizational learning, the following literatures have followed in the tradition of their work: Argyris and Schon (1978) distinguish between single-loop and double-loop learning, related to Gregory Batesons concepts of first and second order learning. In single-loop learning, individuals, groups, or organizations modify their actions according to the difference between expected and obtained outcomes. In double-loop learning, the entities (individuals, groups or organization) question the values, assumptions and policies that led to the actions in the first place; if they are able to view and modify those, then second-order or double-loop learning has taken place. Double loop learning is the learning about single-loop learning. ?March and Olsen (1975) attempt to link up individual and organizational learning. In their model, individual beliefs lead to individual action, which in turn may lead to an organizational action and a response from the environment which may induce improved individual beliefs and the cycle then repeats over and over. Learning occurs as better beliefs produce better actions. ?Kim (1993), as well, in an article titled The link between individual and organizational learning, integrates Argyris, March and Olsen and another model by Kofman into a single comprehensive model; further, he analyzes all the possible breakdowns in the information flows in the model, leading to failures in organizational learning; for instance, what happens if an individual action is rejected by the organization for political or other reasons and therefore no organizational action takes place? ?Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) developed a four stage spiral model of organizational learning. They started by differentiating Polanyis concept of tacit knowledge from explicit knowledge and describe a process of alternating between the two. Tacit knowledge is personal, context specific, subjective knowledge, whereas explicit knowledge is codified, systematic, formal, and easy to communicate. The tacit knowledge of key personnel within the organization can be made explicit, codified in manuals, and incorporated into new products and processes. This process they called externalization. The reverse process (from explicit to implicit) they call internalization because it involves employees internalizing an organizations formal rules, procedures, and other forms of explicit knowledge. They also use the term socialization to denote the sharing of tacit knowledge, and the term combination to denote the dissemination of codified knowledge. According to this model, knowledge creation and organizational learning take a path of socialization, externalization, combination, internalization, socialization, externalization, combination . . . etc. in an infinite spiral. ?Nick Bontis et al. (2002) empirically tested a model of organizational learning that encompassed both stocks and flows of knowledge across three levels of analysis: individual, team and organization. Results showed a negative and statistically significant relationship between the misalignment of stocks and flows and organizational performance. ?Flood (1999) discusses the concept of organizational learning from Peter Senge and the origins of the theory from Argyris and Schon. The author aims to re-think Senges The Fifth Discipline through systems theory. The author develops the concepts by integrating them with key theorists such as Bertalanffy, Churchman, Beer, Checkland and Ackoff. Conceptualizing organizational learning in terms of structure, process, meaning, ideology and knowledge, the author provides insights into Senge within the context of the philosophy of science and the way in which systems theorists were influenced by twentieth-century advances from the classical assumptions of science. ?Imants (2003) provides theory development for organizational learning in schools within the context of teachers professional communities as learning communities, which is compared and contrasted to teaching communities of practice. Detailed with an analysis of the paradoxes for organizational learning in schools, two mechanisms for professional development and organizational learning, (1) steering information about teaching and learning and (2) encouraging interaction among teachers and workers, are defined as critical for effective organizational learning. ?Common (2004) discusses the concept of organisational learning in a political environment to improve public policy-making. The author details the initial uncontroversial reception of organisational learning in the public sector and the development of the concept with the learning organization. Definitional problems in applying the concept to public policy are addressed, noting research in UK local government that concludes on the obstacles for organizational learning in the public sector: (1) overemphasis of the individual, (2) resistance to change and politics, (3) social learning is self-limiting, i.e. individualism, and (4) political blame culture. The concepts of policy learning and policy transfer are then defined with detail on the conditions for realizing organizational learning in the public sector. Organizational knowledge What is the nature of knowledge created, traded and used in organizations? Some of this knowledge can be termed technical ? knowing the meaning of technical words and phrases, being able to read and make sense of economic data and being able to act on the basis of law-like generalizations. Scientific knowledge is ?propositional; it takes the form of causal generalizations ? whenever A, then B. For example, whenever water reaches the temperature of 100 degrees, it boils; whenever it boils, it turns into steam; steam generates pressure when in an enclosed space; pressure drives engines. And so forth. A large part of the knowledge used by managers, however, does not assume this form. The complexities of a managers task are such that applying A may result in B, C, or Z. A recipe or an idea that solved very well a particular problem, may, in slightly different circumstances backfire and lead to ever more problems. More important than knowing a whole lot of theories, recipes and solutions for a manager is to know which theory, recipe or solution to apply in a specific situation. Sometimes a manager may combine two different recipes or adapt an existing recipe with some important modification to meet a situation at hand. Managers often use knowledge in the way that a handyman will use his or her skills, the materials and tools that are at hand to meet the demands of a particular situation. Unlike an engineer who will plan carefully and scientifically his or her every action to deliver the desired outcome, such as a steam engine, a handyman is flexible and opportunistic, often using materials in unorthodox or unusual ways, and relies a lot on trial and error. This is what the French call ? bricolage, the resourceful and creative deployment skills and materials to meet each challenge in an original way. Rule of thumb, far from being the enemy of management, is what managers throughout the world have relied upon to inform their action. In contrast to the scientific knowledge that guides the engineer, the physician or the chemist, managers are often informed by a different type of know-how. This is sometimes referred to a ? narrative knowledge or ? experiential knowledge, the kind of knowledge that comes from experience and resides in stories and narratives of how real people in the real world dealt with real life problems, successfully or unsuccessfully. Narrative knowledge is what we use in everyday life to deal with awkward situations, as parents, as consumers, as patients and so forth. We seek the stories of people in the same situation as ourselves and try to learn from them. As the Chinese proverb says A wise man learns from experience; a wiser man learns from the experience of others. Narrative knowledge usually takes the form of organization stories (see organization story and organizational storytelling). These stories enable participants to make sense of the difficulties and challenges they face; by listening to stories, members of organizations learn from each others experiences, adapt the recipes used by others to address their own difficulties and problems. Narrative knowledge is not only the preserve of managers. Most professionals (including doctors, accountants, lawyers, business consultants and academics) rely on narrative knowledge, in addition to their specialist technical knowledge, when dealing with concrete situations as part of their work. More generally, narrative knowledge represents an endlessly mutating reservoir of ideas, recipes and stories that are traded mostly by word or mouth on the internet. They are often apocryphal and may be inaccurate or untrue yet, they have the power to influence peoples sense making and actions. Individual versus organizational learning Learning by individuals in an organizational context is a well understood process. This is the traditional domain of human resources, including activities such as: training, increasing skills, work experience, and formal education. Given that the success of any organization is founded on the knowledge of the people who work for it, these activities will and, indeed, must continue. However, individual learning is only a prerequisite to organizational learning. Others take it farther with continuous learning. The world is orders of magnitude more dynamic than that of our parents, or even when we were young. Waves of change are crashing on us virtually one on top of another. Change has become the norm rather than the exception. Continuous learning throughout ones career has become essential to remain relevant in the workplace. Again, necessary but not sufficient to describe organizational learning. What does it mean to say that an organization learns? Simply summing individual learning is inadequate to model organizational learning. The following definition outlines the essential difference between the two: A learning organization actively creates, captures, transfers, and mobilizes knowledge to enable it to adapt to a changing environment. Thus, the key aspect of organizational learning is the interaction that takes place among individuals. A learning organization does not rely on passive or ad hoc process in the hope that organizational learning will take place through serendipity or as a by-product of normal work. A learning organization actively promotes, facilitates, and rewards collective learning. Creating (or acquiring) knowledge can be an individual or group activity. However, this is normally a small-scale, isolated activity steeped in the jargon and methods of knowledge workers. As first stated by Lucilius in the 1st century BC, Knowledge is not knowledge until someone else knows that one knows. Capturing individual learning is the first step to making it useful to an organization. There are many methods for capturing knowledge and experience, such as publications, activity reports, lessons learned, interviews, and presentations. Capturing includes organizing knowledge in ways that people can find it; multiple structures facilitate searches regardless of the users perspective (e. g. , who, what, when, where, why,and how). Capturing also includes storage in repositories, databases, or libraries to insure that the knowledge will be available when and as needed. Transferring knowledge requires that it be accessible to everyone when and where they need it. In a digital world, this involves browser-activated search engines to find what one is looking for. A way to retrieve content is also needed, which requires a communication and network infrastructure. Tacit knowledge may be shared through communities of practice or consulting experts. It is also important that knowledge is presented in a way that users can understand it. It must suit the needs of the user to be accepted and internalized. Mobilizing knowledge involves integrating and using relevant knowledge from many, often diverse, sources to solve a problem or address an issue. Integration requires interoperability standards among various repositories. Using knowledge may be through simple reuse of existing solutions that have worked previously. It may also come through adapting old solutions to new problems. Conversely, a learning organization learns from mistakes or recognizes when old solutions no longer apply. Use may also be through synthesis; that is creating a broader meaning or a deeper level of understanding. Clearly, the more rapidly knowledge can be mobilized and used, the more competitive an organization. An organization must learn so that it can adapt to a changing environment. Historically, the life-cycle of organizations typically spanned stable environments between major socioeconomic changes. Blacksmiths who didnt become mechanics simply fell by the wayside. More recently, many fortune 500 companies of two decades ago no longer exist. Given the ever-accelerating rate of global-scale change, the more critical learning and adaptation become to organization relevance, success, and ultimate survival. Organizational learning is a social process, involving interactions among many individuals leading to well-informed decision making. Thus, a culture that learns and adapts as part of everyday working practices is essential. Reuse must equal or exceed reinvent as a desirable behavior. Adapting an idea must be rewarded along with its initial creation. Sharing to empower the organization must supersede controlling to empower an individual. Clearly, shifting from individual to organizational learning involves a non-linear transformation. Once someone learns something, it is available for their immediate use. In contrast, organizations need to create, capture, transfer, and mobilize knowledge before it can be used. Although technology supports the latter, these are primarily social processes within a cultural environment, and cultural change, however necessary, is a particularly challenging undertaking. Learning organization The work in Organizational Learning can be distinguished from the work on a related concept, the learning organization. This later body of work, in general, uses the theoretical findings of organizational learning (and other research in organizational development, system theory, and cognitive science) in order to prescribe specific recommendations about how to create organizations that continuously and effectively learn. This practical approach was championed by Peter Senge in his book The Fifth Discipline. Diffusion of innovations Diffusion of innovations theory explores how and why people adopt new ideas, practices and products. It may be seen as a subset of the anthropological concept of diffusion and can help to explain how ideas are spread by individuals, social networks and organizations.

Tradition in William Faulkners A Rose for Emily and Shirley Jacksons

Tradition in William Faulkner's A Rose for Emily and Shirley Jackson's The Lottery People throughout the world do things for many different reasons. Religion, peer pressure, or tradition are some of the reasons the people do things. In the U.S. we have many traditions such as Christmas. Some people have strange or out of the ordinary traditions. The two short stories ?The Lottery? and ?A Rose for Emily? both portray tradition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In ?The Lottery?, tradition is showed in three main ways. First, Old Man Warner says, ?there has always been a lottery (Jackson 11).? The town people accept The Lottery because there has always been a lottery. The older people in the town such as Old Man Warner keep the tradition alive with their ideals. Second, The Lottery is held every year. Tradition is upheld in this way because it introduces the younger generation to the tradition. This shows that the lottery is a tradition because traditions happen over and over again. Lastly, tradition is shown with the parifanilia used in the story of ?The Lottery?. The black box used to draw names is a duplicate of the original. The black box is a symbol of what was in the years past.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In ?A Rose for Emily?, tradition is also shown in three main ways. First, Emily does not get courted by anyone. This would not seem to be a normal tradition but in the story her father did not want Emily to become involved with anyone. Emily?s father was not following tradition when doing this because normal t...